tJMlVKRf^TTY  of  CALIFORNIA 
UBRARY 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Arciiive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/cubaportoricowitOOhilliala 


STAI 


LSCHOOf 


CUBA  AND  PORTO  RICO 


4895 


CUBA  AND  PORTO  RICO 

WITH  THE  OTHER  ISLANDS 
OF  THE  WEST  INDIES 


THEIR  TOPOGRAPHY,  CLIMATE,  FLORA, 

PRODUCTS,  INDUSTRIES,  CITIES,  PEOPLE, 

POLITICAL    CONDITIONS,   ETC. 


6  4'/ 7 


BY 


ROBERT  T.  HILL 

OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


NEW  YORK 

THE  CENTURY  CO. 

1898 


G  563- 


Copyright,  1898, 
By  The  Centdey  Co. 


The  DeVinne  Press. 


TO 
PROFESSOR  ALEXANDER  AGASSIZ 

THIS  WORK  IS  DEDICATED    IN   APPRECIATION  OP  HIS 

RESEARCHES  INTO  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE 

WEST  INDIAN  SEAS  AND 

ISLANDS 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  GEOGRAPHIC  RELATIONS   OF  THE  WEST  INDIES 

PAGE 

Position  relative  to  the  continents.  Types  of  the  surrounding  lands. 
The  east-and-west  trends  of  the  AntUlean  Mountains.  Differ- 
ences between  the  Gulf  and  Caribbean  basias 1 

CHAPTER  II 
THE  ^VEST  INDIAN   WATERS 

The  American  Mediterranean.  Its  area  and  littorals.  Distinctness 
from  the  oceanic  basins.  The  currents  and  winds  inducing  the 
equable  temperature  and  conditions  of  life.  The  remarkable  sub- 
marine configuration.  The  great  deeps  and  flooded  mountains. 
Peculiar  aspects  of  the  life  of  the  waters.  Influence  of  the  coral 
polyps  in  making  the  rocks  of  the  islands.     Passes  into  the  Atlantic      7 

CHAPTER  III 

CLASSIFICATION   OF  THE  WEST  INDIAN  ISLANDS 

Their  number,  area,  and  populations.  Antithetic  nature  of  their  ori- 
gin, configuration,  and  resources.  Classification  into  groups  of 
similar  type.  The  Great  Antilles.  The  Bahamas.  The  Caribbean 
chain.  The  South  American  islands  of  the  Trinidad  type.  Reefs 
and  keys.     Their  pohtical  organization 18 

CHAPTER  IV 

THE  GREAT  ANTILLES 

Their  individuahty.  Distinctness  of  physical  characters  from  those 
of  the  United  States.  Continental  diversity  of  their  configuration 
as  compared  with  the  monotypic  character  of  the  other  islands. 


VIU  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

•  The  Antillean  mountain  system.  Variety  of  resources.  Total 
population.  Diversity  of  social  conditions  presented  in  the  four 
chief  islands 27 

CHAPTER  V 

THE  ISLAND   OF  CUBA 

Physical  features.  Situation,  commercial  and  strategic  position. 
Outlines,  dimensions,  area.  The  configm-ation.  The  coast  and 
HttoraL  Abundance  of  harbors.  The  bordering  keys.  The  in- 
terior mountain  ranges.  The  plains  of  Cuba.  The  cuchiUas  of 
the  east.  The  terraces  of  Guantanamo.  Valleys  and  depressions. 
Rivers,  lakes,  and  swamps.     Caves  and  scenic  features    ....     33 

CHAPTER  VI 
CLIMATE,    FLORA,  AND  FAUNA 

Temperature  and  precipitation.  Native  trees  and  flowers.  The  royal 
palm.     Scarcity  of  mammals.     Birds,  reptiles,  and  insect  life   .     .     50 

CHAPTER  VII 

HEALTH   AND   SANITATION 

Natural  healthf  ulness  of  the  island.  Ordinary  diseases  due  to  tropical 
situation.  Epidemics  and  yellow  fever.  Hygienic  precautions 
and  suggestions 57 

CHAPTER  VIII 

GEOGRAPHIC   SUBDIVISIONS 

Administrative  departments.  Numerical  population.  Resume  of  pre- 
vious history  leading  to  present  conditions.  Administration  and 
government.  Absolutism  of  authority.  Its  effects  and  influ- 
ences.    Rehgion  and  education 62 

CHAPTER  IX 

THE  RESOURCES   OF    THE  ISLAND 

Agricultural  supremacy.  The  cultivation  of  sugar.  The  superior 
advantages  of  Cuba  for  sugar-culture.  The  plantations  de- 
scribed. Tobacco-culture.  The  vegas  of  the  Vuelta  Abajo.  Skill 
of  Cuban  tobacco-planters.  Coffee,  fruits,  and  minor  agricultural 
products.     Cattle  and  Hve  stock.     Minerals 76 


CONTENTS  .A 

« 

CHAPTER  X 

COMMERCE  AND   TRANSPOETATION 

PAGE 

Harbors,  railways,  highways.  Soiirces  of  wealth. ^The  large  com- 
merce of  the  island.  Commercial  value  of  the  island  to  Spain. 
Trade  with  the  United  States 86 

CHAPTER  XI 
THE  PEOPLE   OF  CUBA 

Misconceptions  concerning  the  people  of  Cuba.  Degrees  and  variety 
of  people.  The  five  classes  of  people.  The  Spaniards  andother 
foreigners.  The  white  Cubans.  Effects  of  disenfranchisement 
and  conscriptions.  HospitaUty  and  courtesy.  Strong  family  at- 
tachments. The  Cuban  women.  The  laboring  classes.  The  col- 
ored and  black  population.     No  danger  of  negro  supremacy    .     .     97 

CHAPTER  XII 
CUBAN   CITIES:    HAVANA 

Large  number  of  cities  in  proportion  to  popidation,  Havana  and  ad- 
jacent towns.  Imposing  appearance  from  the  sea,  and  picturesque 
location.  The  bay  and  shipping.  Prevalent  building-material  and 
type  of  architecture.  The  central  plaza.  European  aspect  of  the 
city.  The  Prado.  Notable  structures.  Tomb  of  Columbus. 
Charitable  institutions.  Homes  and  private  dwellings.  The  busi- 
ness streets.  Street-cars  and  carriages.  Places  of  recreation. 
Pinar  del  Rio.    Cabanas  and  Mariel 107 

CHAPTER  XIII 
OTHER   CUBAN   CITIES 

Matanzas.  Beauty  of  the  surroimding  countrj'.  Cardenas.  Sagua 
la  Grande.  Cienfuegos.  Trinidad.  Santa  Clara.  Puerto  Principe, 
Bayamo,  and  Holguin.  Manzanillo.  Santiago  de  Cuba.  Guan- 
tanamo.     Baracoa 120 

CHAPTER  XIV 
THE  FUTURE   OF  THE  ISLAND 

The  coming  industrial  rehabilitation.  Limitations  of  climate  and 
possibilities.     Opportimities  for  small  farming.    The  reopening  of 


X  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

the  sugar-plantations.  Industrial  openings.  Future  railway  con- 
struction and  public  works.  Harbors  and  municipal  improve- 
ments.    Commercial  expansion 134 

CHAPTER  XV 

THE  ISLAND    OF  PORTO   RICO 

Situation  and  physical  features.  Configuration.  Outline.  Pictu- 
resque topography.  Drainage.  Abundance  of  rivers.  Flora  and 
fauna.    Geology.    Climate.    Hygiene  and  sanitation •  145 

CHAPTER   XVI 
HISTORY  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

Spanish  character  of  its  institutions  and  peoples.  Uneventful  course 
of  its  progress.  Government  and  administration.  ReUgion  and 
education 154 

CHAPTER  XVII 

TRANSPORTATION,   AGRICULTURE,   INDUSTRY, 
AND   COMMERCE 

Harbors.  Railways.  Highways.  Telegraph.  Diversified  nature  of 
the  agriculture.  Large  nimiber  of  small  farms.  Sugar-estates. 
CofEee-culture.  Menores.  Importance  of  the  cattle  industry. 
Commerce  and  trade.     Bad  condition  of  the  currency    ....  158 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE  PEOPLE 

Statistical  details  of  number,  sex,  nativity,  race,  and  literacy.     Ex-  y' 

cess  of  males.  Small  proportion  of  foreign  people.  Divisions 
into  classes.  The  "  Spaniards  "  (white  Porto  Ricans).  The  giba- 
ros,  or  peasantry.  The  negroes.  Foi-mer  conditions  of  slavery 
in  Porto  Rico 164 

CHAPTER  XIX 
CITIES   OF  PORTO   RICO 

San  Juan.  Ponce.  Mayaguez.  Aguadilla.  Arecibo.  Fajardo.  Na- 
guabo,  AiToyo,  San  German,  and  small  towns.  Islands  attached 
to  the  government  of  Porto  Rico 172 


/ 


CONTENTS  XI 

CHAPTER  XX 

JAMAICA 

PAGE 

Geographical  features  of  the  island.  Its  central  position  in  the 
West  Indies.  The  Blue  Mountain  scenery.  The  limestone  pla- 
teau. The  coast  border  and  plains.  Flora,  fauna,  chmate,  sani- 
tation     185 

CHAPTER  XXI 

JAMAICA  {Continued) 

A  model  British  colony.     Respect  for  law  and  order.     Early  history 

and   administration.     Agriculture.    Rise   of   the    fruit   industry.   — -- 
Commerce.     Railways.     Excellent  highways 202 

CHAPTER  XXII 

JAMAICA  {Continued) 

Cities  and  villages.  Kingston.  Spanish  Town.  Port  Antonio.  Mon- 
tego  Bay.  Rixral  life.  The  people.  Excess  of  the  black  population. 
Color-line  and  distinctions.  Dress  and  habits  of  the  blacks.  Folk- 
lore of  the  negroes.  A  peculiar  alphabet.  Dependencies  of  Ja- 
maica   . 219 

CHAPTER  XXIII 
THE  ISLAND   OF   SANTO   DOMINGO 

Difficulties  of  nomenclature.  Geographical  features  of  the  island. 
Irregulai-ity  of  outline.  Mountaias  and  valleys.  The  Alps  of  the 
Antilles.  Classification  of  the  ranges.  Rivers  and  lakes.  CU- 
mate.     Geology.    Fauna 236 

CHAPTER  XXIV 

THE  EEt,.BLIC  OF   SAN  DOMINGO 

Political  and  social  conditions  of  \\\-^  island  as  a  whole.  The  repubUc 
of  San  Domingo.  Interesting  early  history.  The  present  gov- 
ernment and  administration.  Comnierce  and  agriculture.  Min- 
eral resources.  Population.  Predominance  of  mulattos.  Old 
San  Domingo  city.  Early  American  landmarks.  Othej*  points 
of  interest * /.    .    .    .  251 


Xll  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XXV 

THE  REPUBLIC   OF  HAITI 

PAGE 

Its  mountainous  charaeter.  Extensive  coast-line.  Its  constitution 
and  organization.  Education  and  religion.  Commerce  and  rev- 
enue. Commimication.  Cities  (Cape  Haitien,  Port  de  Paix,  Gonaives, 
St.  Marc,  Port-au-Prince,  Aux  Cayes).  The  people.  Supremacy 
of  the  blacks.  Race  antipathies.  Personal  appearance  and  domes- 
tic relations  of  the  Haitians.*  Superstitions.  The  struggle  for  Ub- 
erty.  The  blacks  not  to  blame  for  the  condition  of  the  republic. 
Island  products  and  commerce 263 

CHAPTER  XXVI 

THE  BAHAMAS 

General  geographic  features.  Dissimilarity  to  other  West  Indian 
Islands,  Products  and  population.  Poverty  and  decadence  of 
the  people.     Varied  race  character  of  the  blacks 296 

CHAPTER  XXVII 

THE  LESSER  ANTILLES 

Natural  beauty  of  the  islands.  Distribution  among  many  govern- 
ments.    Differentiation  into  four  types 305 

CHAPTER  XXVIII 

THE  VIRGIN  ISLANDS   AND   ST.   CROIX 

Their  AntUlean  character  and  position.  Geological  character.  Va- 
rious kinds  of  government  St  Thomas.  St.  John.  Virgin  Gorda. 
Anegada.     St.  Croix 309 

CHAPTER  XXIX 

THE   CARIBBEE  ISLANDS 

Classification  into  volcanic  and  calcareous  subgroups.  The  Anguil- 
lan  subgroup.  Sombrero.  Anguilla.  St.  Barts.  St.  Martin. 
Barbuda.    Antigua 318 


CONTENTS  XIU 

CHAPTER   XXX 

THE  VOLCANIC  CAKIBBEES 

PAGE 

Singular  beauty  of  the  islands.  Flora,  fauna,  and  geological  char- 
acter.   Saba.    St.  Eustatius.    St.  Christophex'.    Nevis.    Montserrat  326 

CHAPTER  XXXI 
THE  ISLANDS  OF  GUADELOUPE   AND  DOMINICA 

Government  and  resources  of  Guadeloupe.  Basse-Terre.  Grande-Terre. 
Maria  Galante.  Desirade.  Les  Saintes.  Cities  and  towns  of  Guade- 
loupe.  Dominica  the  beautiful.   A  fertile  soil  awaiting  cultivation  .  337 

CHAPTER  XXXII 

THE  ISLAND   OF  MARTINIQUE 

Beauty  of  its  landscape.  A  description  of  the  forests.  Historj'  and 
present  economic  condition.  The  city  of  St.  Pierre.  Botanical 
gardens.     Fort-de-France.     The  fantastic  population      ....  345 

CHAPTER  XXXIII 

ST.  LUCIA,  ST.  VINCENT,  THE  GRENADINES,  AND  GRENADA 

England's  stronghold  in  the  West  Indies.  The  Pitons.  Agricultural 
depression.     Recollections  of  Rodney 357 

CHAPTER  XXXIV 

THE   SOUTH  AMERICAN   ISLANDS 

Trinidad,  Tobago,  and  Curasao.  The  pecuhar  geographical  features 
of  Trinidad.  Port  of  Spain.  PoUtical  conditions.  Population 
and  people.  The  island  of  Tobago.  Curasao,  the  capital  of  the 
Dutch  West  Indies 365 

CHAPTER  XXXV 

BARBADOS 

Insular  position  of  the  island.  The  coraUine  origin  of  its  soils,  (gov- 
ernment and  economic  conditions.  The  Barbadians.  Density  of 
population.     The  struggle  for  existence 373 


XIV  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XXXVI 
GEOLOGICAL  FEATURES   OF  THE  WEST  INDIES 

PAGE 

General  paucity  of  mineral  resources.  Iron.  Manganese.  Salt 
Phosphate.  Sulphur.  Asphaltum.  Peculiar  geological  history 
of  the  region.     Its  bearing  upon  the  myth  of  Atlantis      ....  380 

CHAPTER  XXXVII 

EACE  PROBLEMS   IN  THE  WEST  INDIES 

Varied  nationality  and  character  of  the  inhabitants.  Condition  of 
the  native  whites.  PossibiHties  of  the  white  race.  The  negroes. 
Their  general  character,  habits,  and  moral  condition.  Obiism,  or 
witchcraft 387 

CHAPTER  XXXVIII 

THE  FUTURE   OF  THE  >V^ST  INDIES 

Vicissitudes  which  have  been  survived.  Depression  of  the  sugar  in- 
dustry. The  bane  of  ahen  land-tenure.  Bad  effect  of  political 
distribution.     Prospective  relations  with  the  United  States  .     .     .  400 


Index 409 


LIST  OF   ILLUSTEATIONS 
MAP  OF  THE  WEST  INDIES Frontispiece 

FACING  PAGE 

TKAVELEK'S    palm,    GAKDEN,    ST.    PIEKEE,    MARTINIQUE — 

NOT  INDIGENOUS 16 

COCOANUT-PALMS,  PLUMB  POINT  LIGHTHOUSE,  JAMAICA      .  24 

BANIAN-TEEE,  BRIDGETOWN,  BARBADOS 24 

PLAZA  IN  FRONT   OF   CAPTAIN-GENERAL'S  PALACE,  HAVANA  32 

GEOLOGIC   MAP   OF  THE  ISLAND   OF  CUBA 40 

MATANZAS 44 

Church  of  Montserrat— Yumuri  Valley,  near  Matanzas 

AFTERNOON  DRIVE  IN  RURAL   CUBA 48 

MATANZAS 52 

Drive  to  the  Bellamar  Caves— Royal  Palms,  Sugar-Estate— Offi- 
cial Building 

HAVANA 57 

View  in  the  Botanical  Gardens— Fruit-Stand— A  Market-Place 
— "Leche  a  Domiciho  "—Donkeys  Loaded  "with  Wood 

SCENES  IN  CUBA 60 

Pack-Horse  Loaded  with  Rum— A  Funeral  Car 

HAVANA 64 

Plaza   des   Armas   and   Captain-General's   Palace— Templete 
Monument,  Erected  at  Site  of-  First  Mass  Said  in  Havana 

HAVANA 72 

Regla,  the  Brooklyn  of  Havana,  Ferry-Boat  in  Foreground— 
At  the  Boat-Landing— Water-Front,  Havana  Bay 

SUGAR-HOUSE  ON  PLANTATION,    CUBA 76 

XV 


XVI  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACmO  PAGE 

SCENES  IN  CUBA " 78 

A  Car-Load  of  Sugar-Cane,  Santa  Anna— Cutting  Sugar-Cane 
with  Machete 

SCENES   IN   CUBA      .      , 80 

Huts  on  Solebad  Estate,  near  Cienfuegos— Hormiguera  Sugar- 
Estate,  Cienfuegos— Pineapples— Bananas  near  Cienfuegos 

MINE   OF  IRON   ORE   NEAR  JURAGUA,  TWELVE  MILES  EAST 

OF  SANTIAGO  DE   CUBA 84 

HAVANA 88 

Morro  Castle  from  the  East— Panorama  of  the  Prado 

SCENES   IN   CUBA 97 

A  Country  House— A  Cuban  Peasant  House  of  the  Better  Sort 
—Peasant  Holding  a  Wooden  Plow 

A  CUBAN   TYPE 102 

THE   SAN   CARLOS   CLUB,    SANTIAGO   DE  CUBA 104 

THE  YUMURI  VALLEY  NEAR  MATANZAS,    CUBA        .      .      .      .108 

HAVANA 112 

Old  Church  Used  as  Custom-House— The  Cathedral 

GENERAL   VIEW   OF   HAVANA  FROM   CABANAS   SHORE         .      .116 

MATANZAS— GENERAL  VIEW 120 

VIEW  IN   THE  PLAZA,    CIENFUEGOS 124 

SANTIAGO  DE   CUBA 126 

General  View— The  Cathedral 

SANTIAGO   DE   CUBA 128 

Smith  Key— Morro  Castle 

SANTIAGO   DE   CUBA 130 

Plaza— Calle  de  Puerto 

SANTIAGO   DE   CUBA 132 

Plaza — Street  Scene — Market — Negroes 

BARACAO,  CUBA 136 

PONCE,  PORTO  RICO 145 

Cascade  of  Plaza  de  las  Delicias— Isabel  Street 

ENTRANCE  TO  SAN  JUAN,  PORTO  RICO 152 

A  STATE  FUNERAL,  SAN  JUAN,  PORTO  RICO 160 

PORTO  RICO 168 

Utuado— Plaza  and  Cathedral  at  Arecibo— Palms  near  San  Juan 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  XVU 

FACIK6  FAGB 

JAMAICA 185 

Port  Royal  from  the  Sea— Rock  Coast  and  Pseudo- Atolls,  Mon- 
tego  Bay— Harbor  of  Port  Royal 
JAMAICA 188 

Mountain  Scenery— Newcastle  Barracks 

EAST  INDIAN   COOLIES,   JAMAICA 192 

CEIBA-TEEE  AND   COUNTEY  ESTATE,   JAMAICA 200 

CULTIVATION   OF   SUGAR-CANE,   JAMAICA 208 

A  CEIBA   OR   SILK-COTTON   TREE 216 

CACTUS  AND   CHAPARRAL,   JAMAICA 216 

JAMAICA 220 

Country  House,  Retreat  Pen,  Clarendon— Kingston  Street  Scene 

JAMAICA 224 

Negresses  Transporting  Cliarcoal— Logwood  Collected  for 
Shipment 

JAMAICANS  CARRYING  BANANAS— BREADFRUIT-TREE   OVER- 
HEAD    232 

SANTO   DOMINGO 240 

Santo  Cerro  Church  and  Nispero  de  Colon,  or  Tree  of  Colum- 
bus, beneath  which  Mass  was  Celebrated  after  the  Great  Vic- 
tory over  the  Indians  of  La  Vega— A  Street  Showing  Cathedral 

SANTO  DOMINGO .256 

Citadel  where  Columbus  was  Imprisoned— Alleged  Coflfin  of 
Columbus 

PORT-AU-PRINCE,  HAITI 272 

Cathedral— Street  Scenes 

BAHAMAS 296 

Cliffs  of  Eleuthera  Island— Wathngs  Island— United  States 
Consid's  House,  Nassau— Street  Scene,  Nassau 

BAY  AND  CITY  OF  ST.  THOMAS 312 

ENTIRE  POPULATION  OF  A  NEGRO  HAMLET,  ANTIGUA  .   .320 

ANTIGUA 322 

Street  Showing  Cathedral  and  Pubhc  Library,  St  John— 
Sugar-Estate 

ST.   JOHN,  ANTIGUA 324 

A  Suburban  Highway— View  of  City  and  Harbor 

FORT-DE-FRANCE,  MARTINIQUE ,      .    326 


XVIU  LIST  OF  ILLUSTEATIONS 

FACIMO  PAGE 

CAEIBBEE   ISLANDS 328 

Town  of  Bottom,  Island  of  Saba,  Situated  in  an  Old  Crater— 
Gustavia,  St.  Bartholomew 

ST.   KITTS 332 

Public  Garden— View 

MABKET,   GUADELOUPE       338 

CARIB   INDIANS   MAKING  BASKETS,   DOMINICA 340 

MARTINIQUE 345 

Statue  of  Josephine— Old  Mill  on  Estate  where  Josephiae 
was  Bom 

MARTINIQUE 348 

Landing,  St.  Pierre— St.  Pierre 

TYPES  OF  WOMEN,  MARTINIQUE 352 

Fille  de  Couleur— French  Negress— Negro  Woman— Mulatto 
Girl 

ST.  LUCIA 357 

Plantations  near  South  End— One  of  the  Pitons 

ST.  VINCENT 360 

Georgetown — Kingstown 

ST.  VINCENT  362 

Sugar-Plantation,  Fort  Da vinet— Windward  Coast— Market 

GRENADA 364 

St.  George's  Harbor— St.  George 

TRINIDAD 366 

Pubhc  Offices— Port  of  Spaia 

PITCH  LAKE,  TRINIDAD 368 

TRINIDAD 370 

CooUes— Coohe  Houses 

BARBADOS 373 

Gathering  Sugar-Cane— Pubhc  Library,  Bridgetown— Laun- 
dresses—Turning  the  Windmill 

BRIDGETOWN  ROADSTEAD,  BARBADOS 374 

BARBADOS 376 

Street  Scene,  Bridgetown— Country  Church— Landing  Wharf, 
Bridgetown 

BARBADIAN  NEGROES 378 

Group  of  Overseers— Trinket-Seller— Pottery- Vender 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  XIX 

FACING  PAGE 

COAST  VIEWS,  BARBADOS 380 

Rolled  Boulder  from  Elevated  Reef— Horizontal  Sea  Erosion 
of  Rolled  Boulders— Effect  of  Trade- Winds  on  Vegetation- 
Bathing  Beach  and  Elevated  Reef— Sea-Coast  Scene— Elevated 
Reef  Terrace 

BARBADIAN  TYPES 387 

Fisherman— Earthenware-Seller — Street  Arab 

TYPES,  BARBADOS  AND  GUADELOUPE 388 

Going  to  Market,  Barbados— Field-Hands,  Barbados  (Note 
Characteristic  Barbadian  Heads) — Woman  in  Characteristic 
Costume,  French  Mulatto,  Guadeloupe 

ST.  VINCENT 390 

Carib  Indians— Carib  Rock-Inscriptions 

ST.  VINCENT 392 

Negro  Hut— African  Basket- Wattle  House,  Board  House,  Ad- 
aptation of  Same 

ANTIGUA  AND  BARBADOS 394 

Negro  Hut,  Antigua— Negroes  and  Low  Whites,  East  Side  of 
Barbados— Fisherman's  Hut,  Barbados 

NEGRO  HUT,  ST.  VINCENT 396 

SUGAR-CULTURE,  BARBADOS 400 

Newcastle  Sugar-MUl— Spreading  Bagasse  to  Dry  for  Fuel— 
Cane-Grinding  by  Windmill  Power 

IMPOVERISHED  SUGAR-ESTATES,  BARBADOS 404 


INTRODUCTION 

WE  have  recently  been  called  a  nation  of  Yankee 
traders.  This  compliment,  although  not  so  in- 
tended, classifies  us  among  the  most  highly  civilized  na- 
tions, which  are  those  that  excel  in  commerce,  and  signal- 
izes our  need  of  foreign  markets. 

The  great  nations  of  Europe  are  apportioning  the  terri- 
tories of  weaker  peoples  among  themselves  for  the  purpose 
of  monopolizing  their  trade.  Whether  the  United  States 
is  to  enter  into  such  operations  or  not,  we  cannot  say,  nor 
is  it  the  purpose  of  this  book  to  discuss  the  question.  Our 
future  prosperity  as  a  nation  depends  largely  on  the 
equality  of  terms  upon  which  our  products  can  obtain 
market  abroad.  Every  square  mile  fenced  in  by  tariff 
laws  of  prohibitive  nations  is  our  commercial  loss ;  every 
one  opened  is  our  gain.  It  was  Spain's  attempt  to  divert 
the  trade  of  Cuba  from  its  natural  channels  by  discrimi- 
native duties  that  fomented  the  discord  leading  to  the 
present  war;  it  was  the  protective  ban*ier  placed  by  us 
against  the  sugar  of  the  West  Indian  Islands  which  almost 
paralyzed  them. 

We  are  not  only  a  nation  of  traders,  but  we  are  a  nation 
of  Yankee  tinkers,  and  it  is  our  scientific  expertness  in 
developing  natural  resources,  in  increasing  the  productive 
labor  of  the  individual,  and  in  quickening  transportation, 
that  has  enabled  us  to  develop  wildernesses  and  to  revive 
countries  which  have  grown  old  in  conservative  ways. 
Our  methods  of  industrial  development  are  scientific,  and 


XXU  INTKODUCTION 

the  art  of  commerce  goes  hand  in  hand  with  geography. 
Not  far  from  our  borders  is  the  wonderful  and  interesting 
West  Indian  region,  which  is  akeady  a  fair  field  of  trade, 
and  which,  present  events  indicate,  will  be  a  better  one  in 
coming  years.  American  industrial  methods  may  be  ap- 
plied to  this  region,  and  it  is  an  opportune  moment  to 
make  a  scientific  presentation  of  its  conditions  and  possi- 
bilities. 

It  is  a  difficult  task  to  convey  a  correct  impression  of  the 
natural  and  economic  conditions  of  the  tropical  American 
countries  and  their  inhabitants.  Too  often  these  are 
judged  by  the  standards  of  our  own  surroundings  and 
customs,  which  are  those  of  an  entirely  different  environ- 
ment. The  configuration  of  the  lands,  geological  struc- 
ture, climate,  and  products  of  the  soil — upon  all  of  which 
culture  depends — are  so  different  from  those  of  our  own 
country  that  we  are  confronted  at  the  outset  with  a  lack 
of  suitable  bases  for  comparison.  The  peoples  and  coun- 
tries of  the  American  Mediterranean  cannot  be  classified 
together  as  social  or  geographic  units.  Nowhere  in  the 
world  are  so  many  extremes  of  natural  conditions,  popu- 
lation, and  government  to  be  found.  As  elsewhere,  cli- 
mate, configuration,  and  fertility  of  soil  are  there  the  first 
considerations  that  influence  productivity,  while  political 
organization  has  also  largely  conditioned  the  degree  of 
civilization.  Neighboring  localities  present  great  con- 
trasts. Here  are  lands  which  have  grown  up  through  the 
agency  of  the  coral-reef  builders,  eminences  piled  high  by 
vast  volcanic  extrusions,  high  plateaus,  and  mountain 
ridges  of  the  lifted  and  folded  sediments  of  the  ocean's 
floor,  each  of  which,  with  modifications  of  altitude  and 
climate,  produces  a  soil  differing  from  the  others  in  agri- 
cultural and  economic  possibilities.  The  reef-veneered 
Barbados,  the  volcanic  areas  of  Central  America,  the 
Windward  Islands,  and  the  high,  arid  plateau  of  Mexico, 
respectively,  are  types  of  these  contrasting  lands,  and  the 
Great  Antilles  are  peculiar  combinations  of  all. 


INTRODUCTION  XXIU 

There  is  an  impression  that  the  peoples  of  these  coun- 
tries are  either  negro  or  Spanish,  and  that  despotism  or 
anarchy,  due  to  the  character  of  the  inhabitants  rather 
than  to  environment  and  administration,  are  the  prevalent 
political  conditions.  In  these  heterogeneous  conceptions 
the  dominant  Indian  population  of  Mexico,  the  negroes  of 
Haiti,  and  the  white  Creoles  of  the  islands  are  indiscrimi- 
nately considered  together.  But  this  region  is  a  most 
remarkable  example  of  the  combined  influences  upon 
mankind  of  geography,  race,  and  government,  and  is  prac- 
tically a  great  sociological  laboratory  where  many  human 
species  are  being  differentiated. 

It  is  true  that  some  people  of  Spanish  descent,  in  coun- 
tries like  Colombia,  Honduras,  and  San  Salvador,  where 
population  is  scattered  and  separated  by  topographic  ob- 
stacles fatal  to  the  establishment  of  strong  governments, 
are  norm'aUy  in  revolt.  There  are  other  Spanish- American 
republics  which,  in  comparison  with  the  government  of 
the  European  country  from  which  they  seceded,  are  fair 
models  of  stability  and  prosperity,  such  as  Costa  Rica, — 
where  capital  punishment  has  been  abolished,— which  is 
as  peaceful  as  Acadia,  and  boasts  that  it  has  never  had  a 
war.  Argentina  and  Chile  are  worthy  of  consideration; 
and  Mexico,  by  gigantic  strides,  since  free  from  European 
interference,  has  changed  from  a  land  of  revolution  and 
banditti  to  the  home  of  a  prosperous  industrial  and  com-  / 
mercial  nation. 

The  conditions  of  the  tropical  countries  in  which  the 
negro  race  prevails  are  indeed  varied,  but  in  some  instances 
better  than  is  generally  supposed.  The  Haitians  have 
made  more  progress  than  is  credited  to  them ;  their  revolt- 
ing experience  has  caused  us  to  overlook  the  fact  that  other 
negro  populations,  such  as  those  of  Jamaica  and  Barbados, 
—where  the  blacks  outnumber  the  whites  in  the  proportion 
of  fifty  to  one,— under  beneficent  English  colonial  con- 
trol, at  least  present  orderly  spectacles.  Of  these  tropical 
countries  and  peoples,  we  are  now  chiefly  concerned  with 


XXIV  INTRODUCTION 

the  West  Indies,  especially  Cuba,  with  a  secondary  interest 
in  Porto  Rico— the  only  islands  where  the  white  race  has 
become  acclimated  and  numerically  dominant,  and  whose 
political  administrations  have  been  most  disturbed,  despite 
their  superior  natural  resources.  The  other  islands  present 
equally  interesting  economic  and  sociologic  studies. 

The  West  Indies  since  their  introduction  to  European 
civilization  have  been  attractive  objects  of  interest  and 
have  presented  a  wonderful  panorama  of  human  and  natu- 
ral phenomena.  They  have  been  the  theater  of  historic 
action,  the  center  from  which  early  American  exploration 
radiated,  and  the  base  of  geographic  operations  during 
those  entrancing  years  when  mariners  ever  scanned  the 
horizon  in  expectation  of  discovering  the  new  and  the 
wonderful.  They  have  been  the  battle-gi'ound  of  the  New 
World  of  nations  from  the  formative  centuries  until  the 
present  civilization.  They  have  been  the  grand  arena  of 
the  war  of  races.  First,  the  Spanish  conquered  the  abori- 
gines ;  then  English,  Dutch,  French,  and  Dane,  anxious  for 
participation,  strove  to  share  in  the  possession  of  the 
Indies,  and  even  individuals,  as'  pirates  and  bucaneers, 
took  part  in  the  general  seizure.  The  din  of  European 
arms  over  these  waters  continued  intermittently  until  the 
beginning  of  this  century.  Cities  with  old-world  walls,  forti- 
fications, and  institutions  had  grown  opulent  in  the  West 
Indies,  or  had  been  destroyed  by  the  guns  of  foreign  foes, 
before  the  landing  upon  Plymouth  Rock  or  the  settlement 
of  Jamestown  had  initiated  Anglo-American  civilization. 
Every  island  is  strewn  with  old  cannon  and  picturesque 
ruins  of  antique  battlements  which  attest  the  days  when 
individuals  and  nations  preyed  upon  the  Spanish  Main. 
Here  Morgan,  Drake,  Grenville,  De  Grrasse,  Rodney,  Nelson, 
Albemarle,  and  other  sea  warriors  of  note  won  victories 
or  suffered  defeat,  and  many  a  brave  forefather  from  our 
own  colonies  participated  in  the  struggle. 

African  slaves  were  implanted  upon  territory  gained  by 
Caucasian  from  aborigine.    By  the  close  of  the  last  cen- 


INTKODUCTION  XXV 

tury,  when  the  civilized  nations  had  about  adjusted  their 
territorial  disputes,  the  slaves  had  attained  numerical 
strength,  and  from  time  to  time  rose  in  revolt — usually  to 
be  suppressed  with  a  loss  of  life  most  appalling,  but  in 
some  cases  achieving  a  success  that  so  completely  ban- 
ished European  life  and  influences  that  civilization  asks 
in  wonder  if  this  Eden  of  nature  is  not  being  transformed 
into  an  American  Africa,  with  its  barbarous  rites  and 
superstitions.  As  a  climax  to  this  tumult  we  have  lately 
seen  in  Haiti  the  spectacle  of  pure  negro  blood  extermi- 
nating the  mulattos. 

These  islands  were  the  commercial  paradise  of  the  first 
three  centuries  of  American  settlement,  and  lands  now 
gone  back  to  jungle  sold  as  high  as  a  thousand  dollars  an 
acre,  "in  those  booming  days  when  sugar  was  at  32." 
Here  manufactui'ers  found  market  for  all  the  weaves  and 
notions  of  their  making.  The  West  India  trade  enriched 
the  merchants  of  Barcelona  and  London,  and  the  products 
of  the  plantations  established  many  a  fortune  in  England, 
France,  and  Spain.  Even  now  their  trade  exceeds  that  of 
all  Mexico  and  Central  America. 

In  the  era  of  their  prosperity  noble  families  of  European 
descent  founded  establishments  of  patriarchal  grandeur, 
luxurious  and  hospitable  beyond  description.  In  these 
times  the  islands  gave  birth  to  Alexander  Hamilton,  our 
first  great  financier,  and  Josephine,  who  became  Empress 
of  the  French.  Here,  too,  Nelson,  then  a  captain  in  the 
British  navy,  was  married  to  the  wife  who  was  faithful  to 
his  unfaithfulness.  No  greater  proof  can  be  found  of  the 
value  of  the  West  Indies  at  the  close  of  the  last  century 
than  the  fact  that  to  England  the  loss  of  the  colonies  which 
now  constitute  our  republic  seemed  of  secondary  impor- 
tance to  Rodney's  gi*eat  naval  victory  over  the  French  off 
Martinique,  whereby  her  supremacy  in  the  West  Indies 
was  established.  In  the  light  of  eighteenth-century  values 
the  American  colonies  were  of  trivial  worth  in  comparison 
with  the  West  Indies,  and  we  may  perhaps  thank  our 


XXVI  INTRODUCTION 

destinies  that  England  at  that  time  devoted  her  superior 
forces  to  retaining  the  latter. 

To  the  naturalist  the  islands  are  a  paradise,  and  in  their 
plants,  animals,  and  rocks  he  finds  not  only  the  new  and 
wonderful,  but  grand  problems  of  origin  and  distribution. 
How  these  lands  arose  from  the  sea,  and  what  their  rela- 
tions to  the  continents  are,  must  still  be  regarded  as  ques- 
tions not  satisfactorily  answered. 

From  the  esthetic  standpoint  these  islands  have  been 
the  inspiration  of  noble  works  of  prose  and  poetry.  Scenic 
pictures  of  mountains,  valleys,  and  coast  everywhere  over- 
whelm the  eye  with  wealth  of  form,  while  rich  vegetation 
of  a  hundred  tints,  shaded  or  illuminated  by  clouds  and 
sunlight,  presents  an  unrivaled  wealth  of  color.  The 
whole,  set  in  a  framework  of  glorious  sea,  is  a  marvelous 
natural  picture. 

Books  have  been  written  treating  of  various  places  and 
parts  of  the  West  Indies,  but,  within  the  past  quarter- 
century  at  least,  none  which  presents  a  geographic  and 
economic  conspectus  of  the  subject  as  a  whole— a  fact 
apparent  to  the  traveler  who  searches  in  vain  for  such  a 
reliable  guide-book.  Some  writers,  like  Stoddard,  Ober, 
St.  John,  and  Bryan  Edwards,  have  presented  charming 
glimpses  of  certain  portions  of  the  islands.  Kingsley, 
in  "  Westward  Ho ! "  and  "  At  Last,"  has  given  descrip- 
tions of  scenes  and  localities  which  will  have  a  permanent 
place  in  literature.  Michael  Scott,  the  author  of  "Tom 
Cringle's  Log,"  Mayne  Eeid,  Marryat,  and  Eobert  Louis 
Stevenson  have  produced  amusing  sketches  of  scenes  here 
and  there.  Samuel  Hazard  has  wi'itten  two  instructive 
books  on  the  every-day  scenes  and  life  of  Cuba  and  Santo 
Domingo.  Lafcadio  Hearn's  "Two  Years  in  the  West 
Indies,"  giving  the  strange  story  of  the  life  and  decadence 
of  the  French  island  of  Martinique,  is  a  most  readable  and 
instructive  book.  St.  John  has  graphically  told  the  heroic 
story  of  black  Haiti's  struggles  for  freedom  and  its  revolt- 
ing sequence.    Froude  has  written  of  the  English  in  the 


INTRODUCTION  XXVll 

West  Indies,  and  Anthony  TroUope  has  given  a  conspectus 
of  the  islands  in  the  middle  of  the  present  century,  just 
before  the  epoch  of  emancipation  which  upset  their  indus- 
trial system ;  and  this  should  be  read  by  all  who  wish  to 
see  the  changes  which  fifty  years  have  wrought.  Captain 
Marry  at  has  recorded  in  fiction,  and  John  Fiske  in  history, 
the  stories  of  the  bucaneering  and  freebooting  on  the 
Spanish  Main.  Of  the  more  solid  historical  works,  John 
Fiske's  writings,  especially  his  "Discovery  of  America" 
and  "Old  Virginia  and  her  Neighbors,"  give  admirable 
summaries  of  earlier  West  Indian  events  and  the  intimate 
relations  that  once  existed  between  the  American  colonies 
and  the  islands. 

Of  economic  treatises  there  are  several  special  works, 
such  as  M.  Ramon  de  La  Sagra's  "Histoire  physique, 
politique  et  naturelle  de  I'ile  de  Cuba,"  Humboldt's  writ- 
ings, Tippenhauer's  "Haiti,"  Schomburgk's  "Barbados," 
and  several  French  works  on  the  present  and  former  pos- 
sessions of  France.  These,  however,  with  the  exception 
of  Tippenhauer's  "  Haiti,"  a  report  of  the  English  Sugar 
Commission,  and  various  consular  reports,  were  written  in 
the  earlier  decades  of  the  century,  and  treat  of  slave  con- 
ditions which  are  now  obsolete.  Captain  Mahan,  in  his 
various  books  and  magazine  articles,  has  described  the 
present  strategic  importance  of  the  islands  and  the  great 
naval  battles  of  the  past. 

Of  works  treating  of  the  natural  history  of  the  West 
Indies  there  are  but  few  of  a  general  or  comprehensive 
character.  Exploration  has  been  sporadic  and  unsys- 
tematic, although  in  these  islands  is  the  key  to  all  the 
higher  problems  of  zoogeography  and  the  evolution  of  the 
continents.  There  is  one  notable  exception ;  for  years  Pro- 
fessor Alexander  Agassiz  has  personally  conducted  or  in- 
spired many  explorations  in  this  region,  and  has  published 
valuable  technical  works  thereon.  His  "  Three  Cruises  of 
the  Blake,"  a  treatise  on  the  wonderful  configuration  of 
the  sea  bottoms  and  their  mysterious  life,  is  a  most  read- 


XXVlll  INTKODUCTION 

able  and  instructive  work  on  the  geology  and  zoology. 
His  works  on  the  living  and  fossil  coral  reefs,  such  as 
"  The  Florida  Reefs,"  "  The  Cruise  of  the  Wild  Duck,''  and 
one  on  the  Bahamas,  are  of  greatest  interest.  To  Professor 
Agassiz's  desire  to  advance  the  knowledge  of  the  West 
Indies  the  writer  is  indebted  for  the  opportunity  of  several 
years'  travel,  whereby  he  was  enabled  to  study  their  geog- 
raphy and  geology,  to  observe  their  social  and  economic 
conditions,  and  to  obtain  experiences  which  have  made 
this  book  possible. 

The  author  cannot  hope  to  present  in  the  present  work 
a  better  description  of  the  West  Indies  than  has  been  given 
in  fragments  by  these  earlier  writers.  He  believes,  how- 
ever, that  there  is  need  for  a  comprehensive  book  on  the 
region  as  a  whole,  and  one  which  will  treat  its  conditions 
as  they  appear  to-day,  giving  the  essential  facts  concerning 
the  physical  geography,  climate,  economic  geology,  agri- 
culture, commerce,  and  social  conditions  of  these  islands, 
as  well  as  the  possibilities  of  their  future  development. 
While  the  work  wiU  be  chiefly  based  upon  the  results  of 
his  own  personal  examinations,  the  scattered  and  in  some 
instances  almost  inaccessible  observations  of  others  wiU 
be  freely  used.  When  statistics  are  given  they  will  be 
presented  as  the  best  obtainable  figures  con^cerning  a 
region  where  the  arts  of  collecting  and  classifying  such 
data  are  by  no  means  the  favorite  occupations  of  the 
inhabitants. 


CUBA  AND  PORTO  RICO 

WITH    THE    OTHER 

ISLANDS    OF 
THE    WEST    INDIES 

CHAPTER  I 

THE   GEOGEAPHIC   RELATIONS   OF   THE   WEST   INDIES 

Position  relative  to  the  continents.  Types  of  the  surrounding  lands.  The 
east-and-west  trends  of  the  Antillean  Mountains.  Differences  between 
the  GuK  and  Caribbean  basins. 

A  PROPER  conception  of  the  social  and  economic  con- 
ditions of  the  various  West  Indian  Islands  and  their 
relations,  or  rather  lack  of  relations,  to  the  adjacent  conti- 
nents, will  be  facilitated  by  a  few  preliminary  words  upon 
the  general  geography  of  the  American  Mediterranean  re- 
gion, of  which  they  are  integral  parts.  This  will  avoid 
much  unnecessary  repetition  in  the  descriptions  of  the 
various  islands. 

The  western  hemisphere  is  divisible  into  three  distinct 
continental  regions,  the  North,  Central,  and  South  Ameri- 
can. North  America  is  the  most  western  ^  of  the  continents, 
and  terminates  in  southern  Mexico,  at  the  end  of  the  Rocky 

1  In  northern  latitudes  we  look  upon  the  Pacific  as  situated  to  our  west ;  but 

were  it  not  for  the  island  of  Cuba  and  the  narrow  isthmian  neck,  one  could 

strike  it  by  sailing  almost  due  south  from  New  York,  and  the  whole  of  the 

South  American  continent  is  situated  far  east  of  the  mass  of  North  America, 

1  1 


Z  CUBA  AND   POETO   KICO 

Mountain  region.  South  America  is  the  eastern  continent, 
and  terminates  with  the  end  of  the  northern  Andes  in  the 
Republic  of  Colombia.  The  Central  American  continent  is 
an  east-and-west  isthmus  connecting  the  termini  of  the 
North  and  South  American  continents.  Central  America 
and  the  West  Indies,  including  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the 
Caribbean  Sea  (together  forming  the  American  Mediterra- 
nean), are  more  complex  features,  largely  individual  in  their 
aspects,  although  more  nearly  related  to  one  another  and 
to  the  northern  coast  of  South  America  than  they  are  to 
the  main  bodies  of  the  larger  continents. 

Geogi'aphy  has  taught  that  the  American  continents  are 
dominated  by  a  continuous  Cordilleran  system  running  like 
a  backbone  through  South,  Central,  and  North  America, 
connecting  the  whole  western  border  of  the  hemisphere  by 
one  great  mountain  system,  which  has  persisted  through 
long  epochs  of  time.  This  is  an  erroneous  idea,  for  the  so- 
called  continental  backbone  is  not  a  geographic  unit,  but 
is  disconnected  in  places.  In  a  later  chapter  I  will  show 
that  the  Central  American  isthmian  barrier  between  the 
oceans  was  once  freely  invaded  by  the  waters  of  the  Pacific, 
while  an  entirely  different  isthmian  bridge  on  the  windward 
or  eastern  side  of  the  Gulf  and  Caribbean  Sea,  now  partially 
destroyed,  probably  connected  or  almost  connected  the 
continents  from  Florida  to  the  northeast  point  of  South 
America.  Either  this,  or  much  of  the  present  Central 
American  lands,  with  some  of  the  West  Indian  Islands, 
long  before  man  appeared  on  this  earth,  formed  a  great 
archipelago — a  veritable  Atlantis — extending  east  and  west 
between  and  directly  across  the  trends  of  the  North  and 
South  American  continents. 

The  east-front  ranges  of  the  North  American  Cordilleras 
are  largely  composed  of  old  sediments  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
wJiich  were  pushed  up  against  a  preexisting  land  lying  to 
the  west ;  they  are  mountain  ranges  with  north-and-south 
trends,  accompanied  by  volcanic  intrusions  and  ejecta. 
Geographers  show  that  this  system  abruptly  terminates 


THE   GEOGRAPHIC  RELATIONS   OF  THE  WEST  INDIES  6 

with  the  great  scarp,  or  ahfall,  of  the  so-called  plateau  of 
Mexico,  in  longitude  97°  W.,  a  little  south  of  the  capital  of 
that  republic,  and  that  the  mountains  have  no  orographic 
continuity  or  other  features  in  common  with  those  of  the 
Central  American  region. 

The  Andean  Cordilleras,  which  dominate  the  South 
American  continental  area,  are  largely  composed  of  the  old 
sediments  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  are  also  accompanied 
by  volcanic  intrusions  and  ejecta  now  folded  into  north-and- 
south  mountain  trends.  They  too  were  pushed  up  against 
a  preexisting  land  buttress,  but  this  lay  to  the  east,  instead 
of  to  the  west  as  in  the  case  of  the  North  American  Cordil- 
leras. The  Andean  trend,  which  follows  the  western  side 
of  South  America,  after  crossing  north  of  the  equator, 
bends  slightly  eastward  and  abruptly  terminates  in  north- 
ern Colombia,  in  longitude  70°  W.  Only  one  doubtful 
spur  touches  the  coast  of  the  American  Mediterranean,  the 
Sierra-deLMarta,  lying  between  the  Gulf  of  Maracaibo  and 
the  river  Magdalena.  The  Andes  have  no  genetic  connec- 
tion with  the  ranges  extending  east  and  west  along  the 
Venezuelan  coast  of  Soutl^  America,  much  less  with  the 
mountains  of  Central  America  or  with  the  great  Eocky 
Mountain  region  of  Mexico  and  the  United  States.  The 
northern  end  of  the  Andean  system  lies  entirely  east  of  the 
Central  American  region,  and  is  separated  from  it  by  the 
Rio  Atrato— the  most  western  of  the  great  rivers  of  Colom- 
bia. In  fact,  the  deeply  eroded  drainage  valley  of  this  stream 
nearly  severs  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia 
and  the  isthmian  region  from  the  South  American  continent. 

The  trends  of  the  great  North  and  South  American 
Cordilleras,  the  Rocky  Mountain  and  the  Andean  systems, 
if  protracted  from  their  termini  in  southern  Mexico  and 
Colombia  respectively,  would  not  connect  with  each  other 
through  Central  America,  but  would  pass  the  latitude  of 
the  Antilles  in  parallel  lines  nearly  two  thousand  miles 
apart.  The  Andean  trends,  if  extended,  would  pass  through 
Jamaica  and  eastern  Cuba,  and  continue  almost  east  of  the 


4  CUBA  AND   PORTO   KICO 

North  American  continent  in  the  direction  of  Nova  Scotia. 
A  similar  southward  extension  of  the  North  American 
Cordilleras  would  carry  them  into  the  waters  of  the  Pacific, 
crossing  the  equator  far  west  of  Central  America  and  the 
South  American  continent. 

In  the  tropical  latitudes,  between  the  widely  separated 
termini  of  the  North  and  South  American  Cordilleras,  as 
above  defined,  and  extending  directly  at  right  angles  to 
them,  lies  another  mountain  system,  to  which  the  term 
"  Antillean  "  may  be  applied.  This  has  been  the  fundamen- 
tal factor  in  West  Indian  configuration,  although  the  system 
has  not  usually  been  properly  appreciated  by  geologist  and 
geographer,  owing,  no  doubt,  to  the  fact  that  its  remarka- 
ble and  continuous  ranges  are  largely  submerged  beneath 
the  waters  of  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

East-and-west  mountain  ranges  of  the  AntiUean  type 
occui*  through  the  Grreat  Antilles,  along  the  Venezuelan  and 
Colombian  coast  of  South  America,  north  of  the  Orinoco ; 
in  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  Costa  Rica,  and  the  eastern 
parts  of  Nicaragua,  Guatemala,  Honduras,  Yucatan, 
Chiapas,  and  southern  Oaxaca.  The  two  elongated  sub- 
marine ridges,  separated  by  the  deep  oceanic  valley 
known  as  "Bartlett  Deep,"  which  stretch  across  the 
Caribbean  from  the  Antilles  to  the  Central  American 
coast,  from  the  west  end  of  the  Sierra  Maestra  range  of 
Cuba  to  the  coast  of  Honduras,  and  from  Jamaica  to 
Cape  Grracias  a  Dios,  respectively,  are  similar  in  configu- 
ration to  the  east-and-west  mountain  ranges  of  the  Great 
Antilles,  and  are,  no  doubt,  genetically  a  part  of  them. 

The  Antillean  system  is  made  up  of  east-and-west 
mountain  ranges  composed  of  folded  sedimentaries.  Like 
the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Andes,  it  is  accompanied  by 
volcanic  intrusions  and  ejecta,  but,  instead  of  dominating 
a  continental  region,  these  uplifts  practically  have  their 
greatest  development  on  the  Antillean  Islands  and  in  the 
submarine  topography  of  the  sea,  and  form  a  mountainous 
perimeter  of  the  depressed  Caribbean  basin. 


THE  GEOGRAPHIC  RELATIONS   OF  THE  WEST  INDIES  5 

The  great  physical  differences  between  the  lands  bor- 
dering the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Caribbean  Sea  are 
chiefly  dependent  upon  the  arrangement  and  relation  of 
the  Rocky  Mountain,  Andean,  and  Antillean  systems  of 
mountain  folds.  The  first  of  these  in  its  geognostic  as- 
pects and  relations  is  distinctly  North  American,  the 
second  South  American,  and  the  third  is  peculiarly  Cen- 
tral American.  The  Grulf  of  Mexico  is  an  indentation 
into  the  North  American  continent — the  restricted  sur- 
vival of  a  great  interior  sea  which  once  extended  over  the 
Great  Plains  region  of  the  United  States,  which  at  one 
time  almost,  if  not  entirely,  separated  North  America 
into  two  great  prehistoric  continents,  the  Appalachian 
and  Cordilleran.  The  basin  of  the  GuK  is  still  filling  up 
from  the  sediments  brought  down  by  rivers  which  drain 
nearly  one  fourth  the  area  of  the  United  States.  With 
the  single  exception  of  its  extreme  southwestern  indenta- 
tion upon  the  coast  of  Mexico,  the  Gulf  is  surrounded  by 
low  plains  composed  of  great  sheets  of  subhorizontal  and 
unconsolidated  sediments  deposited  when  its  own  waters 
occupied  a  larger  area  than  at  present.  The  entire  sea 
margin  of  the  Gulf  region  of  the  United  States  and  most 
of  Mexico  is  of  this  nature,  while  the  north  coasts  of 
Yucatan  and  portions  of  Cuba,  although  modified,  are 
related  phenomena.  Thus  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  instead 
of  having  a  mountainous  periphery  like  the  Caribbean, 
is  bordered  by  plains. 

There  is  still  another  class  of  tropical  mountains,  distinct 
from  those  made  of  folds  of  the  earth's  sedimentary  crust. 
These  are  the  volcanoes  which  have  gi'own  by  extrusion 
and  accumulation.  Sometimes  they  are  parasitic  upon 
the  folded  mother  systems,  sometimes  independent  of 
them.  They  belong  to  the  great  area  of  igneous  erup- 
tivity  which,  at  least  since  the  beginning  of  Tertiaiy  time, 
has  marked  the  western  half  of  the  North  American  con- 
tinent, the  northern  and  western  sides  of  South  America, 
and  the  eastern  side  of  the  Caribbean  region.     Although 


b  CUBA  AND   PORTO   RICO 

blending  into  one  another,  the  volcanic  areas  of  the  tropics 
are  of  two  distinct  kinds,  which  we  may  call  the  quiescent 
and  the  active. 

The  active  volcanic  gi*oup  occurs  in  four  widely  sepa- 
rated localities:  1.  The  Andean  group  of  volcanoes  of 
the  equatorial  region  of  western  South  America,  which 
rise  above  the  corrugated  folds  of  the  northern  termination 
of  the  dominant  South  American  Cordilleras.  2.  The 
chain  of  some  twenty-five  gi^eat  cinder-cones  which  stretch 
east  and  west  across  the  south  end  of  the  Mexican  Pla- 
teau, protruding  on  the  terminal  ranges  of  the  North 
American  Cordilleras.  3.  The  Central  American  group, 
with  its  thirty-one  active  craters,  occurs  diagonally  across 
the  western  ends  of  the  east-and-west  folds  of  the  Antil- 
lean  corrugations,  and  fringes  the  Pacific  side  of  Guate- 
mala, San  Salvador,  and  Costa  Rica.  This  is  separated 
from  the  Mexican  group  on  the  north  by  a  quiescent 
volcanic  area,  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  and  on  the 
south  from  the  Andean  volcanoes  by  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama,  where  no  active  volcanoes  are  found.  4.  The 
volcanoes  of  the  Windward  chain  of  islands,  which  mark 
the  eastern  gate  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  in  a  line  directly 
across  the  eastern  terminus  of  the  Antillean  Mountains. 
These  are  parallel  to  the  Central  American  group,  and 
together  these  two  groups  constitute  the  eastern  and  west- 
em  borders  of  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

Other  regions  in  which  volcanic  activity  has  been  quiet 
in  recent  geologic  epochs  are  the  Great  Antilles,  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  the  Pacific  coast  of  South  America 
west  of  the  Atrato,  and  the  Venezuelan  coast  of  South 
America.  Thus  the  Caribbean  is  bordered  on  the  east  and 
west  by  volcanic  chains,  and  on  the  north  and  south  by 
mountain  folds. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE   WEST   INDIAN   WATERS 

The  American  Mediterranean.  Its  area  and  littorals.  Distinctness  from 
the  oceanic  basins.  The  currents  and  winds  inducing  the  equable  tem- 
perature and  conditions  of  life.  The  remarkable  submarine  configura- 
tion. The  great  deeps  and  flooded  moimtains.  Peculiar  aspects  of  the 
life  of  the  waters.  Influence  of  the  coral  polyps  in  making  the  rocks 
of  the  islands.     Passes  into  the  Atlantic. 

HAYING-  shown  the  fundamental  relations  of  the  tropi- 
cal American  region,  the  essential  features  of  its  local 
geography  can  now  be  briefly  outlined.  First  a  word  as 
to  magnitude.  When  the  writer  first  sailed  for  these 
waters  he  had  the  erroneous  impression,  which  is  shared 
by  many,  that  the  whole  West  Indian  region  could  be 
seen  and  studied  in  a  single  season— an  illusion  which 
was  dispelled  by  a  few  weeks'  experience.  It  took  some 
time  to  realize  that  a  journey  across  the  greater  length 
of  the  Gulf  and  Caribbean  from  Galveston  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Orinoco  was  nearly  four  thousand  miles,  or  one 
third  more  than  the  distance  from  New  York  to  Liver- 
pool; that  the  eastern  chain  of  islands  from  Florida  to 
Trinidad  was  strung  out  for  a  thousand  miles;  and  that 
to  go  from  Jamaica,  near  the  geographic  center  of  the 
region,  to  any  of  the  peripheral  points,  such  as  Colon, 
Barbados,  or  Nassau,  was  a  matter  of  three  or  four  days' 
steaming. 

The  waters  of  the   Gulf  and  Caribbean,  615,000  and 
750,000  square  miles  in  area  respectively,  aggregate  1,365,- 

7 


8        '  CUBA   AND   PORTO   EICO 

000  square  miles,  or  one  sixth  the  area  of  the  North  and 
Central  American  continents,  while  the  land  area  of  all  the 
islands  is  nearly  100,000  square  miles,  not  quite  equal  to 
that  of  the  State  of  Colorado. 

The  traveler  who  would  circumnavigate  the  American 
Mediterranean,  as  the  Gulf  and  Caribbean  may  be  collec- 
tively termed,  keeping  the  bordering  lands  in  sight,  say 
by  entering  at  the  Florida  capes,  and  following  the  shores 
of  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Mexico, 
Honduras,  Costa  Rica,  Panama,  Colombia,  and  Venezuela 
to  Trinidad,  and  thence  up  the  inner  margins  of  the  Wind- 
ward Islands  and  the  southern  shores  of  the  Great  An- 
tilles back  to  the  point  of  beginning,  would  be  obliged  to 
travel  twelve  thousand  miles— nearly  one  half  the  earth's 
circumference. 

A  word  as  to  directions  must  be  added.  The  prevalent 
trends  are  east  and  west  in  this  region.  The  longest  axes 
of  the  seas  and  islands  are  along  east-and-west  lines.  Even 
the  coasts  of  the  surrounding  mainlands  are  thus  arranged. 
A  glance  at  the  straight  east-and-west  Caribbean  coast  of 
South  America,  Honduras,  and  Guatemala  shows  that 
the  S-shaped  outhne  of  the  isthmus  also  has  a  prevalent 
east-and-west  direction. 

Volumes  might  be  devoted  to  descriptions  of  the  won- 
derful waters  of  the  American  Mediterranean.  They  have 
many  phases  of  depth,  current,  temperature,  and  life,  but 
we  can  only  touch  upon  the  essentials.  This  great  tropi- 
cal body  of  water  is  not  merely  an  arm  of  the  ocean,  in- 
denting and  almost  separating  the  American  continents, 
but  is  a  deep  and  well-defined  marine  basin  or  series  of 
basins,  more  completely  closed  on  the  Atlantic  side  than 
is  apparent  from  a  glance  at  the  map.  The  numerous 
islets  of  its  eastern  border,  the  Bahamas  and  Windward 
chain,  which  extend  from  Florida  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Orinoco,  are  merely  the  summits  of  steep  submarine  ridges, 
which  divide  the  depths  of  the  Atlantic  from  those  of  the 
GuK  of  Mexico  and  Caribbean  Sea;  were  their  waters  a 


THE  WEST   INDIAN   WATERS  9 

few  feet  lower  these  ridges  would  completely  landlock  the 
seas  from  the  ocean. 

Further  study  shows  that  this  vast  tropical  sea  is  com- 
posed of  a  number  of  distinct  basins,  each  marked  by  great 
depths  and  separated  by  lands  or  shallows — a  condition 
somewhat  comparable  to  that  of  our  Great  Lakes,  if  they 
and  their  adjacent  lands  were  united  into  a  continuous 
body  of  water  by  slight  regional  subsidences.  These 
secondary  divisions,  which  appear  small  upon  the  map 
and  have  less  conspicuous  land  inclosures,  are  really 
extensive  bodies  of  water,  such  as  the  Mosquito  Gulf,  nes- 
thng  in  the  curve  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  forming 
the  southwest  termination  of  the  Caribbean  Sea;  the 
Gulf  of  Honduras,  which  is  almost  landlocked  by  Yucatan, 
Cuba,  Jamaica,  and  the  submerged  Rosalind  Bank  on  the 
south;  and  the  Haitian  Sea,  or  Old  Bahama  Channel,  as 
the  sailing-masters  foiTiaerly  called  the  long  stretch  of 
water  between  the  Bahamas  and  the  northern  shores  of 
the  Antilles. 

The  American  Mediterranean  in  its  entirety  may  be 
considered  a  great  whirlpool  or  oceanic  river.  This  is 
caused  by  the  tremendous  velocity  with  which  the  waters 
of  the  Atlantic,  moved  by  wind  and  terrestrial  motion, 
pour  into  the  Caribbean  Sea  through  the  straits  between 
the  Windward  Islands  and  the  passage  between  Cuba  and 
Santo  Domingo.  These  rush  impetuously  through  the 
Caribbean  Sea  until  they  meet  the  Central  American 
coast.  Failing  to  find  a  westward  passage  across  this 
barrier,  they  are  deflected  northward  around  the  western 
end  of  the  Antilles,  through  the  Yucatan  Channel,  and  into 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  out  of  which  they  flow  to  the  east, 
through  the  Strait  of  Florida,  as  the  great  Gulf  Stream. 
The  normal  westerly  movement  of  this  cuiTcnt  through 
the  Caribbean  Sea  is  estimated  at  from  ten  to  twenty 
cubic  miles  of  water  per  day. 

After  passing  at  an  accelerated  speed  through  the 
Banks  Strait,  between  Jamaica  and  the  Mosquito  Reef, 


10  CUBA   AND   PORTO    RICO 

the  main  stream  is  joined  by  an  affluent  setting  from  the 
Atlantic  through  the  Windward  Channel.  Hence  north- 
westward an  enormous  liquid  mass  passes  at  a  velocity  of 
from  two  to  three  miles  through  the  Strait  of  Yucatan, 
from  the  Caribbean  Sea,  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  On 
entering  the  Grulf  this  stream  ramifies  into  two  branches ; 
one,  following  the  north  coast  of  Cuba,  sets  toward  Florida 
Strait,  while  the  other  broadens  out  in  the  spacious  central 
basin  of  the  Gulf  and  develops  an  intricate  system  of 
counter-currents.  Toward  the  center  of  this  nearly  cir- 
cular sea  the  waters  seem  to  be  in  a  state  of  equilibrium, 
while  at  the  periphery  they  move  parallel  with,  but  at 
some  distance  from,  the  surrounding  coasts.  South  of 
the  Mississippi  delta  the  turbid  fluid  of  that  great  river  is 
impelled  eastward  in  a  straight  line  by  the  blue  waters  of 
the  Gulf  Stream,  until  a  junction  is  effected  of  the  southern 
branches  at  the  western  entrance  of  Florida  Strait,  through 
which  the  whole  mass  rushes  like  a  mighty  river  into  the 
broad  Atlantic.  At  the  most  narrow  part,  between  Jupiter 
Inlet,  on  the  Florida  side,  and  Memory  Rock,  in  the  Baha- 
mas, the  stream  contracts  to  a  width  of  fifty-six  miles, 
with  an  extreme  depth  of  four  hundred  and  fifty  fathoms. 
In  this  limited  channel  the  velocity  varies  from  two  to  six 
miles,  the  average  being  about  three,  and  the  discharge, 
according  to  Bartlett,  175,000,000,000  of  cubic  feet  per  sec- 
ond, or  15,260,000,000,000,000  per  day.  Such  proportions 
are  difficult  to  grasp,  for  they  represent  a  moving  mass 
equal  to  about  three  hundred  thousand  Mississippi  rivers. 
Yet  they  are  still  far  inferior  to  the  prodigious  volume  of 
relatively  tepid  water  spread  over  the  surface  of  the  North 
Atlantic  and  Arctic  oceans.  In  fact,  the  Gulf  Stream, 
issuing  from  Florida  Strait,  supplies  only  a  small  portion 
of  those  tepid  waters  whose  influence  is  felt  as  far  east  as 
Nova  Zembla.  The  main  supply  comes  from  that  portion 
of  the  equatorial  current  which  is  deflected  north  by  the 
barrier  of  the  West  India  Islands  and  is  joined  by  the 
Gulf  Stream  south  of  the  Bermudas. 


THE  WEST   INDIAN  WATERS  11 

Accompanying  these  currents  are  the  great  tropical 
trade-winds.  They  come  from  the  vast  expanse  of  the 
Atlantic,  and  blow  with  a  steady  velocity  across  the  region 
—a  boon  to  the  inhabitants,  without  which  life  would  be 
unendurable.  ^  They  are  laden  with  moisture,  greater  at 
certain  seasons  than  others,  which  is  precipitated  against 
the  higher  protuberances  of  the  land.  They  chop  the 
surface  of  the  Caribbean  into  a  million  whitecaps  and 
ripples,  giving  that  sea  a  rough  surface  quite  different 
from  the  glassy  waters  of  the  Gulf,  the  latter  being  par- 
tially protected  from  these  winds  by  the  Antilles  and  the 
Yucatan  peninsula.  They  also  create  a  superb  surf  against 
the  windward  side  of  the  tropical  islands  and  mainland. 
Their  benign  influence  spreads  even  to  our  own  country, 
for  they  make  the  south  breezes  which  in  summer  blow 
across  Texas  and  the  Grreat  Plains  region.  There  is  no 
more  delightful  sensation  than  to  feel  the  cooling  touches 
or  drink  in  the  exhilarating  purity  of  this  moving  air-cur- 
rent, especially  along  the  windward  or  Atlantic  side  of 
the  eastern  islands,  where  it  moves  with  a  steady  velocity 
stronger  than  a  breeze  and  milder  than  a  gale.  In  those 
portions  of  the  islands  entirely  or  partially  protected  by 
land  heights,  this  wind  is  broken,  and  counter- currents 
set  in.  For  instance,  on  the  leeward  or  Caribbean  side  of 
the  Windward  Islands,  cut  off  from  the  Atlantic  by  moun- 
tains rising  three  thousand  feet  or  more,  it  is  often  sultry, 
and  the  winds,  representing  eddies  in  the  greater  current, 
come  only  at  certain  times  of  day.  On  the  south  coast  of 
Jamaica,  at  Kingston,  the  trade-wind  blows  only  between 
the  daylight  hours  of  ten  and  four.  Coming  as  it  does  in 
the  warm  midday,  it  is  a  great  relief,  and  is  called  by  the 
inhabitants  "  the  doctor."  The  relation  of  these  winds  to 
the  situation  of  land  is  an  important  factor  in  tropical 
America,  and  influences  the  conditions  of  vegetation, 
health,  rainfall,  and  other  phenomena.  Its  importance 
explains  the  frequency  with  which  the  terms  "  leeward  "  and 
"  windward  "  are  used  in  the  West  Indian  nomenclature. 


12  CUBA   AND    POKTO   EICO 

The  great  southward-flowing  air-currents  from  the 
United  States,  which  bring  our  blizzards  in  winter,  some- 
times invade  the  West  Indies,  and  are  there  known  as 
"northers."  They  extend  to  Panama  and  the  Great 
Antilles,  but  barely,  if  at  all,  reach  the  Windward  Islands, 
The  absence  of  a  breeze  in  the  West  Indies  is  ominous. 
Sometimes  in  these  periods  of  atmospheric  quiet  the 
barometer  falls  rapidly,  and  in  a  few  hours  great  hurri- 
canes ensue.  Few  years  pass  without  a  disaster  at  one 
point  or  another  of  the  normal  storm-zone.  Nearly  all 
the  islands  have  been  more  or  less  devastated  by  these 
visitations.  Barbados,  Jamaica,  St.  Thomas,  Guadeloupe, 
and  Cuba  especially  have  suffered  severely.  Houses  have 
been  uprooted  like  trees,  fortresses  demolished,  ships  car- 
ried far  inland,  plantations  strewn  with  huge  blocks, 
islands  broken  into  reefs,  and  reefs  piled  up  into  islands. 
The  "  great  hurricane  "  of  October  10, 1786,  is  said  to  have 
"  leveled  cities,  wrecked  fleets,  and, 

"  '  Amid  the  common  woe, 
Reconciled  the  French  and  Enghsh  foe/ 

who  were  preparing  to  cut  each  other's  throats."  The 
hurricanes  are  said  to  occur  only  at  the  end  of  summer  or 
beginning  of  autumn,  when  the  heated  surface  of  South 
America  attracts  the  cooler  and  denser  air  of  the  northern 
continent.  But  although  most  frequent  in  August,  and 
generally  prevalent  between  July  and  October,  such  dis- 
turbances have  also  been  recorded  at  other  times. 

These  winds  and  currents  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  are 
neither  hot  in  summer  nor  cold  in  winter.  Their  temper- 
ature, ameliorated  by  the  cooler  waters,  mitigates  the 
tropical  radiation  of  summer  and  warms  the  northern 
blasts  of  winter,  and  is  nearly  the  same  the  year  round. 
The  intense  extremes  of  our  own  country  are  unknown, 
the  thermometer  never  falling  to  the  cold  characteristic  of 
nearly  all  the  United  States,  nor  rising  to  the  intense  heat 
of  our  summers.    Hence  throughout  the  West  Indies  the 


THE  WEST   INDIAN  WATEKS  13 

temperature  is  equable,  normally  between  70°  and  80° 
at  sea-level,  and  varying  above  or  below  this  only  in  lim- 
ited localities -where  land  barriers  cut  off  the  winds,  or 
upon  the  mountain  summits.  Were  it  not  for  the  humid- 
ity of  the  atmosphere,  the  general  temperature  of  the 
islands  would  be  most  enjoyable. 

Another  feature  of  the  American  Mediterranean  is  its 
wonderful  submarine  topography.  This  is  so  intimately 
connected  with  the  topography  of  the  land  that  the  rela- 
tions of  the  latter  cannot  be  understood  without  a  brief 
description  of  it.  Beneath  the  blue  waters  is  a  configura- 
tion which,  if  it  could  be  seen,  would  be  as  picturesque  in 
relief  as  the  Alps  or  Himalayas.  Nowhere  can  such  con- 
trasts of  relief  be  found  within  short  distances.  Some 
deeps  vie  in  profundity  with  the  altitudes  of  the  near-by 
Andes,  so  that  between  the  gi'eat  Brownson  Deep  of 
twenty-five  thousand  feet  to  the  summit  of  Chimborazo 
there  is  a  difference  in  altitude  of  nearly  ten  miles. 

The  deepest  cavity  yet  revealed  in  the  Atlantic  occurs 
at  a  point  due  north  of  Porto  Rico,  where  the  soundings 
record  a  depth  of  forty-five  hundred  fathoms.  This  is 
known  as  the  Brownson  Deep.  Some  of  the  depressions, 
like  the  Bartlett  Deep,  are  narrow  troughs,  only  a  few 
miles  in  width,  but  hundreds  of  miles  in  length,  three  miles 
in  depth,  and  bordered  by  steep  precipices  and  escarpments. 
Others,  like  the  Sigsbee  Deep,  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,^  are 
gi-eat  circular  basins.  There  are  long  ridges  beneath  the 
waters,  which,  if  elevated,  would  stand  up  like  islands  of 
to-day,  and,  as  has  been  shown,  have  an  intimate  relation 
to  the  mountains  of  the  land.  Again,  vast  areas  are  un- 
derlain by  shallow  banks  less  than  five  hundred  feet  deep 
and  often  approaching  the  surface  of  the  water,  like  that  ex- 
tending from  Jamaica  to  Honduras  and  the  Bahama  banks. 
The  greater  islands  and  the  mainlands  are  bordered  in 
places  by  submerged  shelves. 

^  These  three  deeps,  named  after  naval  commanders  of  to-day,  were  bestowed 
by  Agassiz  in  commemoration  of  the  part  which  they  took  in  surveying  them. 


14  CUBA   AND   PORTO    BlCO 

From  a  physiographic  point  of  view  all  the  islands  are 
the  upward-projecting  tops  of  a  varied  configuration  which 
has  its  greatest  relief  beneath  the  sea,  and  which  is  of  no 
less  interest  to  the  student  of  physiography  than  the  great 
irregularities  of  the  land.  The  islands  which  form  the 
outer  rampart  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  rise  from  submerged 
ridges.  The  Antilles,  connected  by  submerged  sills,  none 
of  which  exceeds  five  hundred  fathoms,  also  project  upward 
from  vast  foundations  beneath  the  water.  These  features 
strongly  suggest  the  fact  that  the  islands  as  we  see  them 
to-day  were  once  much  more  extensive  lands. 

The  systematic  exploration  of  these  depths  began  in 
1872  on  the  west  side  of  Florida,  under  the  direction  of  the 
American  officers  attached  to  the  Coast  Survey.  Howell, 
Pourtales,  Alexander  Agassiz,  Bartlett,  Sigsbee,  Baird, 
and  others  have  studied  the  bottoms.  Not  only  have  care- 
ful soundings  been  everywhere  taken  in  order  to  map  out 
the  relief,  but  the  most  sensitive  instruments  have  been 
used  to  determine  the  varying  temperature  at  different 
depths,  the  course  of  the  upper  and  lower  currents,  their 
saline  properties,  thermometric  deviation,  and  other  fea- 
tures. 

Special  attention  has  also  been  paid  to  the  marine  fauna 
down  to  the  darkest  recesses  of  the  abyss,  and  many  star- 
tling discoveries  have  been  made,  which  open  marvelous 
vistas  into  the  past  evolution  of  life  on  the  globe.  It  was 
formerly  supposed  that  the  marine  fauna  was  confined  to 
the  surface  or  shallow  waters,  and  that  the  stillness  of  death 
reigned  in  the  gloomy  recesses  of  the  deep.  But  the  dredg- 
ings  of  the  Blake  and  other  exploring  vessels  in  depths 
of  over  two  thousand  fathoms  have  already  increased  the 
number  of  animal  forms— the  crustacean,  for  instance — 
from  twenty  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  species,'grouped  under 
forty  new  genera.  The  deep  waters  are  also  found  to  be 
extremely  rich  in  forms  resembling  the  fossils  of  former 
geological  epochs,  and  to  comprise  numerous  phosphores- 
cent species.    In  certain  places  the  marine  bed  is  covered 


THET  WEST  INDIAN  WATEES  15 

with  living  organisms ;  in  the  channels  of  the  Windward 
Islands,  near  Guadeloupe,  and  the  Saintes,  and  about  St. 
Vincent  and  Barbados,  dense  forests  of  pentacrini  undu- 
late on  the  bottom  like  aquatic  plants. 

The  purely  biologic  aspect  of  the  sea  life  is  not  more 
wonderful  than  the  architectural  work  that  deep-sea  ani- 
mals and  the  millions  of  mollusks  and  coral  polyps  which 
inhabit  the  shallower  waters  and  banks  perform.  These 
extract  the  lime  carried  in  solution  by  the  translucent  sea- 
water,  and  convert  it  into  the  shells  and  corals  which  are 
so  large  a  part  of  the  beach  sands,  and  the  glaring  white 
limestones  which  are  conspicuous  features  in  the  West 
Indian  Islands  and  the  Florida  and  Yucatan  peninsulas. 

The  embryonic  coral  polyp  is  a  free  swimmer  in  the 
sea,  which  in  a  second  stage  of  its  life-history  becomes 
permanently  fixed  on  the  banks,  and  devotes  the  remainder 
of  its  life  to  extracting  calcium  carbonate  from  the  sea  and 
assimilating  it  into  its  stony  skeleton.  It  will  thrive  only 
on  shallow  banks  less  than  one  hundred  fathoms  deep,  and 
where  the  temperature  and  clearness  of  the  water  are  to  its 
liking.  Once  domiciled,  it  grows  upward,  and,  dying,  leaves 
a  huge  skeleton  of  stone,  upon  which  other  polyps  become 
fixed  and  add  their  sum  to  the  mass.  Glradually  the 
growth  reaches  the  surface  of  the  waters,  when  the  waves 
and  winds  disintegrate  it  into  calcareous  sand  and  soil 
upon  which  vegetation  finds  root.  Thus  the  coral  islands 
are  born. 

The  coral-builders  are  at  work  over  a  vast  range,  which 
is  estimated  at  one  fourth  of  the  marine  surface  of  the 
region.  To  their  incessant  toil  must  be  largely  attributed 
the  formation  of  much  of  the  calcareous  plateaus  by  which 
the  Yucatan  and  Florida  straits  are  contracted  on  both 
sides,  as  well  as  of  those  rocky  ledges  which  are  washed 
by  high  tides,  and  are  revealed  only  by  sandy  dunes,  such 
as  the  Salt  Key,  or  by  their  fringe  of  mangroves,  like  some 
of  the  Florida  Keys,  and  Anegada  with  its  prolongation, 
the  dreaded  Horseshoe  Reef,  connecting  it  with  the  Virgin 


16  CUBA   AND   PORTO   EICO 

Islands.  More  than  half  the  Cuban  seaboard,  the  various 
groups  of -the  Bahamas,  the  eastern  members  of  the  Lesser 
Antilles,  and  the  Berraudas  are  largely  of  coralline  origin. 

The  muddy  deposits  in  the  central  parts  of  the  Gulf  and 
of  the  Caribbean  Sea  are  derived  chiefly  from  the  remains 
of  pteropods.  In  other  places  the  shells  of  foraminifers 
make  up  the  bottom.  It  is  only  around  the  interior  mar- 
gin of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  that  silicious  sands  and  other 
land  debris  brought  down  by  rivers  constitute  the  beach 
material  with  which  we  are  familiar  in  the  United  States ; 
and,  great  as  this  is  in  quantity,  it  seems  insignificant  in 
comparison  with  the  vast  amount  of  limestone  which  the 
lower  forms  of  life  are  creating  through  organic  agencies, 
and  which,  as  we  shall  see,  is  the  rock-making  material  of 
aU  the  non- volcanic  islands  of  the  West  Indies,  and  one 
of  the  conspicuous  features  which  give  them  individuality 
of  color,  soil,  and  landscape. 

The  American  Mediterranean  finds  a  number  of  outlets 
across  the  submerged  bridge  separating  its  abysses  from 
those  of  the  Atlantic.  Shipping  may  glide  eastward  out 
of  the  Caribbean  into  the  Atlantic  between  any  of  the 
Windward  Islands,  but  to  go  northward  toward  the  United 
States  it  must  beat  through  one  of  four  widely  separated 
gateways,  which  are  of  great  strategic  importance.  These 
are  the  Anegada,  Mona,  and  Windward  passages  and  the 
Yucatan  Channel.  The  Anegada  Passage  is  the  most  east- 
ern, threading  its  way  between  the  region  where  the  eastern 
Virgin  Islands  of  the  Antillean  gi'oup  meet  those  of  the 
Windward  chain.  Through  this  passage  there  went  for 
many  years  all  the  European  ships  passing  into  and  out  of 
the  Caribbean  Sea,  making  St.  Thomas  the  commercial 
capital  of  the  West  Indies.  The  Mona  Passage  separates 
the  island  of  Porto  Eico  from  that  of  Santo  Domingo,  and, 
being  out  of  the  lines  of  travel,  is  less  frequented  than  the 
others.  The  Windward  Passage,  between  Santo  Domingo 
and  Cuba,  and  its  continuation  as  the  Jamaican  Channel 
between  the  western  cape  of  Santo  Domingo  and  Jamaica, 


\  l-\ 


^m^ 


:-T¥C:i*l^.  T.:.i 


TKAYELER'S   palm,   garden,    ST.    PIERKE, 
MAETINIQUE— NOT  INDIGENOUS 


THE  WEST  INDIAN  WATERS  17 

is  the  most  used  commereially  of  all  the  passages,  and  of  the 
greatest  strategic  importance,  inasmuch  as  trade  from  New 
York  to  the  south  coast  of  the  islands  mentioned,  the 
isthmus,  and  the  western  coast  of  northern  South  America 
must  pass  through  it.  The  Yucatan  Channel  separates 
Cuba  from  the  Central  American  mainland,  and,  except  the 
Strait  of  Florida,  is  the  only  entrance  into  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico. 

Of  these  passages  into  the  American  Caribbean  the 
island  of  Cuba  guards  three  of  the  most  important,  and 
this  fact  gives  it  precedence  in  strategic  importance. 


CHAPTER  III 

CLASSIFICATION   OF  THE  WEST  INDIAN  ISLANDS 

Their  number,  area,  and  populations.  Antithetic  nature  of  their  origin, 
configuration,  and  resources.  Classification  into  groups  of  similar 
type.  The  Great  Antilles.  The  Bahamas.  The  Caribbean  chain. 
The  South  American  islands  of  the  Trioidad  type.  Reefs  and  keys. 
Their  pohtical  organization. 

NOT  counting  the  thousands  of  uninhabited  islets  con- 
stituting the  Florida  Keys,  the  Bahamas,  the  coral 
reefs  bordering  Cuba  and  in  the  western  Caribbean,  or 
the  five  hundred  rocky  projections  of  the  Grrenadines, 
there  are  forty  inhabited  islands  in  the  West  Indies,  varying 
in  area  from  less  than  five  square  miles  to  the  size  of 
New  York  State.  The  area  and  population  of  these  are 
shown  in  the  following  table. 

Table  showing  Area  and  Population  of  the  West  Indies 

AREA,  POPU- 

SQUARE  MILES.  LATION. 

Bahamas 5,450  54,000 

Gbeat  Antilles 

Cuba 45,000  1,631,687 

Santo  Domingo 28,249  610,000 

Jamaica 4,218  639,491 

Porto  Rico 3,550  806,708 

Total  Great  AntiUes 86,467  3,687,886 

Virgin  Islands 

St.  Croix 74  18,430 

St.  Thomas 23  32,786 

St.  John 21  950 

18 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  WEST  INDIAN  ISLANDS  19 

AREA,  POPU- 
SQUARE   MILES.     LATION. 

Virgin  Islands— Continued 

Anegada 20  

Tortola 58  5,000 

Virgin  Gorda 176  

Total  Virgin  Islands 372  57,166 

Cakibbee  Islands  (Outer  Chain) 

Sombrero   

Anguilla   35  3,699 

St.  Martin 38  3,724 

St.  Bartholomew 5  2,650 

Barbuda 62  639 

Antigua 108  36,819 

Desirade    10  1,400 

Maria  Galante 65  13,850 


Total  Outer  Chain 323  62,781 

Caribbee  Islands  (Inner  Chain) 

Santa  Cruz 74  18,430 

Saba 5    .  2,065 

St.  Eustatius 8  1,613 

St.  Christopher 65  30,867 

Nevis 70  13,087 

Montserrat 32  11,762 

Guadeloupe  and  dependencies 600  167,000 

Dominica 290  26,841 

Martinique 400  187,692 

St.  Lucia 245  46,671 

St.  Vincent 122  41,054 

Grenadines 


.   120  60.367 

Grenada 


Total  Inner  Chain 2,031  607,449 

Total  Caribbee  Islands 2,354  670,230 

Barbados 166  189,000 

South  American  Islands 

Tobagcj 114  20,463 

Trinidad 1,754  248,804 

Buen  Ayre 95  4,399 

Cura<?ao 210  28,187 

Margarita  and  small  islands 470  40,000 


Total  South  American  Islands 2,643  341,853 


20  CUBA  AND  PORTO   KICO 

These  islands,  far  from  being  alike  in  natural  features 
and  economic  possibilities,  present  great  extremes.  Some 
are  low,  flat  rocks  barely  peeping  above  the  sea;  others 
gigantic  peaks  rising  straight  to  the  clouds,  which  perpet- 
ually envelop  their  summits;  others  are  combinations  of 
flat  and  rugose  types.  Some  present  every  feature  of  relief 
configuration  that  can  be  found  within  a  continental  area 
— mountains,  plains,  valleys,  lakes;  some  are  made  up 
entirely  of  glaring  white  coral  sand  or  reef  rock;  others 
are  entirely  composed  of  black  volcanic  rock,  and  still 
others  are  a  combination  of  many  kinds  of  rocks.  Many 
are  as  arid  as  a  Western  desert  and  void  of  running 
streams,  and  others  have  a  most  fertile  soil,  cut  by  a  hun- 
dred picturesque  streams  of  living  water,  and  bathed  in 
perpetual  mist  and  daily  rainfall.  Some  are  bordered  only 
with  the  fringing,  salt-water  plants  or  covered  with  thorny, 
coriaceous  vegetation;  others  are  a  tangled  mass  of 
palms,  ferns,  and  thousands  of  delicate,  moisture-loving 
plants  which  overwhelm  the  beholder  with  their  luxuriance 
and  verdancy  of  color.  Some  are  without  human  habi- 
tants; others  are  among  the  most  densely  populated 
portions  of  the  world. 

The  differences  in  natural  character  between  groups  of 
islands  have  an  important  bearing  upon  habitation  and  eco- 
nomic possibilities.  Each  group  is  so  different  from  the 
others  that,  were  they  not  in  close  geographic  proximity, 
they  would  in  no  manner  be  considered  related.  The 
diverse  configuration  produces  climatic  differences,  and 
each  kind  of  rock  weathers  into  its  peculiar  soil.  For  ex- 
ample, the  Bahamas  are  not  adapted  to  growing  sugar,  or 
the  Caribbee  Islands  to  the  raising  of  cattle;  food-fish 
are  not  abundant  off  the  Great  Antilles,  owing  to  the  steep 
marine  escarpments,  while  they  thrive  in  the  Bahamas  and 
on  the  leeward  side  of  the  Caribbee  Islands ;  some  of  these 
islands,  through  possibilities  of  a  diversified  agriculture 
and  hygienic  condition,  are  adapted  to  higher  civilization, 


"^x= 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   THE  WEST  INDIAN  ISLANDS  21 

and  others,  either  through  sterility  or  ruggedness  of  relief, 
are  capable  of  supporting  only  inferior  races. 

These  various  islands  are  classifiable,  by  geographic 
position,  geological  composition,  and  economic  possibili- 
ties, into  several  great  groups,  the  principal  of  which 
are  the  Bahamas,  the  Antilles,  the  Windward  or  Caribbee 
Islands,  the  Trinidad-Tobago  group,  and  the  keys  or  coral 
reefs.  f 

Of  these  the  Great  Antilles  are  by  far  the  most  fertile, 
diversified,  and  habitable,  presenting  greater  extremes  of 
hypsometric,  climatic,  and  hydrographic  features  than  all 
the  others.  Their  configuration  and  geological  features 
are  of  a  diversified  type,  suggestive  of  continental  rather 
than  insular  conditions,  while  the  other  groups  of  West 
Indian  Islands  are  monotypic  in  character.  Several  of  the 
Great  Antilles  exceed  in  area  all  the  other  groups.  These, 
extending  for  twelve  hundred  miles  in  an  east-and-west 
line,  between  longitudes  65°  and  85°  W.,  are  the  large 
islands  of  Porto  Eico,  Santo  Domingo,  Cuba,  and  Jamaica. 
The  Virgin  archipelago,  extending  eastward  from  Porto 
Rico  to  the  Anegada  Passage, — a  group  which  might  be  con- 
fused with  the  Caribbean  chain, — is  Antillean  in  its  natu- 
ral features.  These  include  Crab,  Culebra,  Culebrita,  St. 
Thomas,  St.  John,  Tortola,  Virgin  Gorda,  and  Anegada, 
the  largest  of  which  is  Crab  Island,  with  an  area  of  less 
than  twenty-five  square  miles. 

The  Great  Antilles  and  the  shallow  passages  between 
them  constitute  a  barrier  separating  the  Gulf  and  Carib- 
bean basins,  and  are  practically  within  the  area  of  the 
American  Mediterranean,  while  the  Bahamas  and  Lesser 
Antilles  make  its  outer  rim. 

The  eastern  islands  are  composed  of  the  Bahamas  and 
Lesser  Antilles,  which  in  natural  features  differ  radically 
from  each  other.  The  Bahamas,  to  the  north  of  the  Great 
Antilles,  rise  from  the  shallow,  submerged  platform  of  the 
great  submarine  shelf  which  borders  the  North  American 


22  CUBA  AND   PORTO   EICO 

continent  from  Massachusetts  to  the  eastern  end  of  the 
G-reat  Antilles.  They  are  all  monotypic,  consisting  of 
low  heaps  of  calcareous  shells  and  coral  sand,  which  have 
been  piled  up  above  a  submerged  platform  by  wind  and 
wave. 

According  to  Bacot,  the  Bahamas,  excluding  the  Caicos 
and  Turks  groups,  comprise  690  islands  and  islets  and 
2387  rocks  or  separate  reefs,  with  a  total  area  of  5600 
square  miles.  Including  the  Caicos  and  Turks,  which 
belong  to  the  group,  the  actual  number  can  scarcely  be 
less  than  3200,  of  which  only  31  were  inhabited  in  1890, 
with  a  total  population  of  54,000.  They  stretch  northwest 
and  southeast  between  Florida  and  Santo  Domingo  for  a 
distance  of  780  miles.  They  rise  from  a  shallow  subma- 
rine platform  separated  from  Santo  Domingo  and  Cuba 
by  the  Old  Bahama  Channel,  twelve  thousand  feet  deep. 
This  platform  may  represent  the  planed-down  summit  of  a 
submarine  ridge  akin  to  the  Antillean  uplifts.  Unlike  the 
Antilles,  the  Bahamas  are  of  low  relief,  often  barely  pro- 
jecting their  heads  above  the  water,  and  their  wind-blown 
sand-dunes  nowhere  rise  to  an  altitude  greater  than  one 
hundred  feet. 

The  Caribbee  Islands,  which  close  the  eastern  gate  of 
the  Caribbean,  are  as  different  from  the  Bahamas  as  are 
the  Bahamas  from  the  Great  Antilles,  although  they  too 
are  the  projecting  tip  of  a  submerged  ridge  which  has  its 
greater  extent  beneath  the  water.  They  extend  in  a  gentle 
curve  from  the  Anegada  Passage  of  Porto  Rico  southward 
to  Trinidad,  and  include  twenty-one  islands  besides  the 
Grenadines.  The  latter  include  several  hundred  distinct 
islets,  often  merely  heads  of  rock  rising  above  the  sea,  and 
extending  sixty  miles  in  the  general  axis  of  the  chain, 
between  St.  Vincent  and  Grenada.  Barbados,  about  one 
hundred  miles  east  of  the  circle,  and  Aves  or  Bird  Island, 
about  two  hundred  miles  west,  are  included  by  some 
writers  in  the  Caribbean  chain,  but  we  shall  not  so  con- 
sider them. 


CLASSIFICATION    OF   THE   WEST   INDIAN   ISLANDS  23 

The  Caribbean  chain  in  the  northern  half  of  its  extent 
consists  of  a  double  row  of  islands.  The  inner  circle, 
which  more  completely  spans  the  distance  between  the 
Great  Antilles  and  South  America,  is  the  main  chain,  and 
the  outer  circle  is  made  up  of  secondary  and  dependent 
features. 

Those  of  the  main  chain,  including  the  islands  of  Saba, 
St.  Eustatius,  St.  Christopher,  Nevis,  Montserrat,  Guad- 
eloupe, Dominica,  Martinique,  St.  Lucia,  St.  Vincent,  Gren- 
adines, Grenada,  are  volcanic  heaps,  of  weird  insular 
forms,  rising  precipitously  above  the  sea,  attaining  a  height 
of  4450  feet  in  Martinique,  clad  to  the  very  top  in  vege- 
tation, and  usually  clouded  in  mist.  They  are  composed 
entirely  of  old  volcanic  material,  and  from  the  richness 
of  their  vegetation  and  the  blackness  of  their  rock  present 
a  dark  and  restful  landscape  even  under  the  tropical  sun. 
The  outer  circlet  of  islands,  including  Sombrero,  Anguilla, 
St.  Martin,  St.  Bartholomew,  Barbuda,  Antigua,  Desirade, 
and  Maria  Galante,  with  the  exception  of  Antigua,  which 
is  partially  volcanic,  are  islets  of  white  limestone  and  coral- 
reef  rock,  rising  nowhere  over  two  hundred  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  resembling  in  color  the  Bahamas.  They  rise 
from  a  submerged  slope  extending  oceanward  from  the 
inner  chain. 

The  fourth  type  of  tropical  American  islands  borders 
the  north  coast  of  South  America,  and  includes  the  islands 
of  Tobago,  Trinidad,  Margarita,  Blanca,  Las  Roques, 
Buen  Ayre,  Curasao,  and  other  small  islands.  These  were 
once  portions  of  the  South  American  continent,  and  have 
been  severed  from  the  mother-land  by  the  corrosive  effects 
of  the  equatorial  currents  which  here  break  into  the  Carib- 
bean. Barbados  perhaps  is  related  to  the  latter  group,  but 
it  has  a  peculiar  construction  which  justifies  placing  it  in 
a  class  by  itself.  In  remote  geologic  ages  it  was  probably 
the  end  of  a  peninsula  projecting  from  the  South  Ameri- 
can mainland. 

The  fifth  and  last  class  of  West  Indies  consists  of  coral 


24  CUBA   AND    PORTO   KICO 

reefs  which  have  been  slightly  elevated  above  the  sea. 
These  occur  in  many  places,  either  singly  or  in  clusters, 
and  by  location  are  not  classifiable  into  a  geographic 
group,  although  they  are  most  numerous  in  the  Honduras 
Sea,  in  the  western  part  of  the  Caribbean. 

Islands  of  this  and  kindred  character— in  which,  for  pres- 
ent purposes,  may  be  included  mangrove  islets  and  other 
lands  not  strictly  reef  rock,  but  dependent  upon  shallow 
banks  for  a  foundation— border  th^  end  of  Florida,  Cuba, 
and  the  Windward  side  of  the  Caribbee  Islands. 

In  addition  to  islands  which  can  thus  be  grouped,  there 
are  many  standing  alone,  like  Barbados,  Aves,  Navassa, 
and  Swan  Island,  which  seem  for  the  present  to  defy  any 
system  of  classification.  There  are  also  many  islands  and 
islets  off  the  Central  American  coast,  which  may  mostly  be 
considered  to  be  continental,  so  far  as  their  natui*al  rela- 
tions are  concerned. 

Only  one  of  the  smaller  solitary  islets  of  the  American 
Mediterranean  is  volcanic.     This  is  the  Old  Providence 
group,  in  latitude  13°  N.,  standing  in  the  western  Carib-, 
bean,  about  one  hundi*ed  and  fifty  miles  off  the  coast  of- 
Nicaragua. 

In  general  it  may  be  stated  that  of  these  groups  the 
Great  Antilles  and  South  American  islands  are  continental 
in  the  diversity  of  their  configuration,  the  Bahamas  and 
keys  and  solitary  islets  are  composed  of  organic  skeletal 
debris,  and  the  Caribbee  Islands  are  of  old  volcanic 
origin. 

Perhaps  no  equal  area  of  the  world  is  distributed  among 
the  flags  of  so  many  nations.  Only  one  island,  Santo 
Domingo,  possesses  free  and  independent  governments. 
The  remainder  are  the  property  of  many  nationalities. 
The  political  organizations  of  the  whole  are  as  follows: 
independent :  Santo  Domingo,  composed  of  two  republics ; 
Spanish  islands :  Cuba,  Isle  of  Pines,  Porto  Kico,  Vieques, 
Mona,  Culebra;  British  islands:  Bermudas,  Bahamas, 
Jamaica,  Turks,  St.  Christopher,  Nevis,  Antigua,  Dominica, 


COCOANUT-PALMS,    PLUMB   POINT   LIGHTHOUSE,    JAMAICA 


BANIAN-TREE,    BRIDGETOWN,    BARBADOS 


CLASSIFICATION   OF  THE  WEST  INDIAN  ISLANDS  25 

St.  Vincent,  Grenada  and  Grenadines,  Barbados,  Virgin 
Islands,  Montserrat,  St.  Lucia ;  French  islands :  St.  Bar- 
tholomew, Guadeloupe,  Martinique;  Dutch  islands:  St. 
Eustatius,  Saba,  Curasao,  Buen  Ayre,  Aruba ;  French  and 
Dutch :  St.  Martin ;  Danish  islands :  St.  Thomas,  St.  John, 
Santa  Cruz. 

Two  islands  are  divided  in  government.  Santo  Domingo 
consists  of  two  independent  republics,  Haiti  and  Santo  Do- 
mingo. Seventeen  square  miles  of  the  little  island  of  St. 
Martin  belong  to  Holland,  and  twenty-one  square  miles 
to  France.  Of  the  Spanish  islands,  Cuba  is  a  dependent 
colony  without  local  self-government ;  Porto  Rico  was  an 
integral  part  of  Spain,  participating  in  the  rights  of  the 
mother-country,  until  recently,  when,  in  1897,  it  was 
granted  a  system  of  autonomy. 

The  French  islands  of  Maria  Galante,  Desirade,  the 
Siantes,  and  part  of  St.  Martin,  with  Guadeloupe,  form  an 
administrative  colony,  having  a  representative  governor 
from  France,  aided  by  local  representative  assistants. 
Martinique  is  similarly  organized. 

The  administration  of  the  British  islands  is  divided 
among  several  distinct  and  colonial  governments,  inde- 
pendent of  one  another,  each  with  local  representative 
assemblies  and  a  governor  and  colonial  secretary  appointed 
by  the  crown.  The  Bahamas  constitute  one  of  these,  the 
seat  of  administration  being  located  at  Nassau.  Jamaica, 
with  Turks  Island  and  the  Caicos  and  Cayman  Islands 
attached  for  administrative  purposes,  is  another. 

St.  Christopher,  Nevis,  Antigua,  Barbuda,  Montserrat, 
Redonda,  Dominica,  and  the  British  Virgin  Islands  con- 
stitute the  English  Leeward  Island  administrative  group, 
with  the  seat  of  government  at  St.  John,  Antigua.  St. 
Lucia,  which  is  French  in  its  language,  manners,  and  re- 
ligion, is  a  British  dependency,  which  was  until  recently 
governed  as  a  conquered  possession  by  a  quasi-military 
governor  with  the  aid  of  a  council.  It  is,  however,  in  some 
measure  dependent  upon  the  governor  of  Barbados.     St. 


26  CUBA  AND   PORTO   EICO 

Vincent,  Grenada,  and  the  Grenadines  constitute  the  Carib- 
bee  Island  government,  with  a  capital  at  Kingstown,  St. 
Vincent.  Trinidad,  with  Tobago,  constitutes  another  sep- 
arate colony,  and  Barbados  still  another.  In  all  there  are 
six  British  colonial  groups  in  the  West  Indies,  without 
any  confederated  relations  to  one  another. 

The  widely  separated  Dutch  islands  are  all  parts  of  the 
colony  of  Curasao,  with  its  seat  of  government  on  the 
island  of  that  name.  The  administration  is  composed  of 
a  governor  and  three  other  colonial  officers  nominated  by 
the  crown,  and  an  elective  colonial  council. 

The  islands  of  St.  Croix,  St.  John,  and  St.  Thomas  con- 
stitute a  crown  colony  of  Denmark.  The  island  of  Na- 
vassa,  between  Haiti  and  Jamaica,  is  claimed  by  its  pro- 
prietors to  belong  to  the  United  States,  but  the  latter  gov- 
ernment has  not  acknowledged  any  proprietary  right  in  it. 

Many  of  the  islets  and  reefs,  such  as  Aves,  Roncador, 
etc.,  are  beyond  the  pale  of  any  government.  This  may 
be  both  on  account  of  their  general  worthlessness  to  civili- 
zation, and  because  ownership  would  require  expensive 
responsibility,  such  as  placing  lights  for  the  protection 
of  navigation. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE     GKEAT    ANTILLES 

Their  individuality.  Distinctness  of  physical  characters  from  those  of  the 
United  States.  Contiaental  diversity  of  their  configuration  as  com- 
pared with  the  monotypic  character  of  the  other  islands.  The  AntU- 
lean  mountain  system.  Variety  of  resources.  Total  population. 
Diversity  of  social  conditions  presented  in  the  four  chief  islands. 

IN  their  climate  and  vegetation,  as  in  their  topographic 
features  and  geologic  history,  the  Great  Antilles  have 
no  affinities  with  conditions  with  which  we  are  familiar  in 
the  United  States.  Their  whole  aspect  is  tropical,  yet  they 
possess  so  many  unique  individual  features,  differing  from 
those  of  other  tropical  lands,  that  they  belong  in  a  class 
entirely  by  themselves.  The  causes  of  this  individuality 
are  involved  in  a  peculiar  and  complicated  geologic  his- 
tory, which  can  be  dwelt  upon  here  only  to  the  extent  of 
stating  that  it  has  produced  certain  peculiarities  of  con- 
figuration and  given  origin  to  formations  which  weather 
into  soils  of  unusual  productiveness. 

Collectively  the  Great  Antilles  consist  of  a  disconnected 
chain  of  mountains  (the  Antillean  system)  protruding 
above  the  sea  and  having  an  east-west  trend  directly 
transverse  to  that  of  the  axial  continental  Cordilleras. 
The  highest  peaks  of  this  system  in  Haiti,  Cuba,  and 
Jamaica  are  11,000,  8000,  and  7000  feet  respectively. 
This  mountain  system,  as  a  whole,  is  one  of  the  most 
marvelous  works  of  earthly  architecture.  Its  peculiar 
origin  and  history  are  more  fully  explained  in  a  later 

27 


28  CUBA   AND    PORTO   KICO 

chapter  of  this  book.  Its  complicated  geologic  history, 
and  the  fact  that  a  large  portion  of  its  extent  is  now  sub- 
merged beneath  the  ocean,  are  not  the  least  interesting  of 
its  many  features. 

The  Antillean  uplift,  as  a  whole,  may  be  compared  to 
an  inverted,  elongated  canoe,  the  highest  and  central  part 
of  which  is  in  the  region  adjacent  to  the  "Windward  Pas- 
sage. Thus  it  is  that  the  higher  peaks  occur  in  Haiti, 
eastern  Cuba,  and  eastern  Jamaica,  while  the  arching 
crest-line  descends  toward  the  western  part  of  the  two 
latter  islands,  and  on  the  east  toward  Porto  Rico,  where 
the  highest  summit  is  only  3680  feet,  finally  disappearing 
as  the  Virgin  Islands,  where,  in  St.  Thomas,  the  summit 
is  1560  feet. 

The  higher  mountains  are  composed  of  non-calcareous 
clay  and  conglomerate,  largely  the  debris  of  unknown 
lands  of  pre-Tertiary  time,  which,  with  the  exception  of  a 
few  restricted  points,  were  buried,  during  a  profound  sub- 
sidence in  early  Tertiary  time,  beneath  a  vast  accumulation 
of  calcareous  oceanic  sediments.  The  latter  now  compose 
the  white  limestones  which  constitute  the  chief  formations 
of  the  islands,  and  which  were,  together  with  the  preced- 
ing formations,  elevated  into  their  present  position  at  the 
close  of  the  Tertiary  period.  The  mountains  are  irregu- 
larly flanked  below  2000  feet  by  horizontal  benches,  or 
terraces,  of  this  limestone,  which  are  the  result  of  regional 
elevations  and  base-leveling  after  the  last  period  of  moun- 
tain-making. There  are  also  intrusions  of  old  igneous 
rocks,— gi'anitoid,  porphyritic,  and  basaltic, — but  these  are 
of  a  more  ancient  character  than  the  volcanic  rocks  of  the 
"Windward  chain,  and  nowhere  are  there  craters  or  other 
traces  of  recent  volcanic  vents.  The  mountains  above 
2000  feet,  composed'of  the  older  non-calcareous  formations, 
and  the  lower  plains  and  bordering  plateaus  of  limestone, 
result  in  producing  the  two  distinct  and  contrasting  types 
of  calcareous  and  non-calcareous  soils  throughout  the 
G^reat  Antilles. 


THE   GREAT   ANTILLES  29 

Although  a  more  or  less  continuous  chain  of  sierras, 
which  may  be  called  the  mother  range,  extends  in  an 
axial  line  from  St.  Thomas  through  Porto  Rico,  Santo 
Domingo,  the  northwest  cape  of  Haiti,  the  Sierra  Maestra 
range  of  Cuba,  and  the  submerged  Misterosa  Ridge  of  the 
Caribbean,  for  a  distance  of  a  thousand  miles,  the  Antillean 
Mountains  are  not  continuous  crests  like  our  Appalachians, 
but  are  composed  of  many  short  overlapping  ranges,  pre- 
senting at  first  sight  a  serrated  appearance  similar  to  the 
Alps  and  Pyrenees,  with  this  difference,  that  they  are  not 
covered  with  snow. 

The  island  of  Santo  Domingo  is  the  center  and  cul- 
mination of  the  entire  Antillean  uplift.  The  highest  of  its 
peaks,  Monte  Tina,  just  south  of  the  center  of  the  island, 
reaches  the  respectable  altitude  of  nearly  12,000  feet.  The 
most  continuous  Santo  Domingoan  range,  the  Sierra  de 
Cibao,  extends  in  an  east-and-west  direction  through  the 
center  of  the  republic,  and  is  flanked  on  the  north  and  south 
coasts  by  several  short  but  lofty  lateral  ranges.  This 
sierra  has  a  south-southeast  and  north-northwest  trend,  and 
culminates  in  the  Pico  del  Yaqui,  9500  feet  high,  while 
many  other  peaks  attain  altitudes  of  7350  feet.  Near  the 
western  extremity  of  this  range  rises  the  colossal  Nalgo  de 
Maco,  whose  lofty  head,  7000  to  8000  feet,  overtops  all 
the  mountains  in  its  vicinity. 

In  the  republic  of  Haiti  the  occidental  continuation  of 
the  Antillean  uplifts  begins  to  divide  into  a  number  of 
spreading  branches  pointing  toward  the  Central  American 
coast.  This  differentiation  is  first  indicated  in  the  two 
long  peninsulas  of  Haiti,  the  northern  of  which  extends 
toward  Cuba  and  the  southern  toward  Jamaica.  The 
northern  branch  is  the  continuation  of  the  main  or  axial 
ranges  of  the  general  system,  and  is  represented  in  Cuba 
by  the  lofty  summits  of  Sierra  Maestra,  bordering  the 
Santiago  coast  of  the  east  end  of  the  island.  This  moun- 
tainous crest  apparently  ceases  at  Cape  Cruz,  but  in 
reality  it  continues  westward  for  eight  degrees  of  longi- 


30  CUBA  AND   PORTO   KICO 

tude,  or  over  five  hundred  miles,  as  the  Misterosa  Bank 
a  wonderful  submarine  mountain  ridge,  which,  although 
barely  reaching  the  surface  of  the  water,  precipitously 
rises  18,000  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the  sea. 

The  remainder  and  main  body  of  Cuba,  lying  north  of 
the  Sierra  Maestra,  is  the  most  northern  of  the  three 
western  branches  of  the  Antilles,  and  this  is  of  quite 
different  structure  from  the  others. 

The  southern  of  the  Haitian  peninsulas  stretches  out 
toward  Jamaica,  but  ends  in  a  submarine  bank  just  north- 
east of  that  island.  Still  south  of  this  the  Blue  Mountains 
of  Jamaica,  rising  to  7325  feet,  trend  in  a  north-of-west 
direction,  and  make  the  most  southern  of  the  land  ranges  of 
the  Great  Antillean  uplift.  Vast  areas  of  the  Pedro,  Rosa- 
lind, and  Roncador  banks,  in  the  western  Caribbean,  repre- 
sent still  other  groups. 

Few  people  realize  the  intense  rugosity  of  these  moun- 
tains. When  considered  relatively  to  the  plain  from  which 
they  rise,  their  altitudes  are  enormous,  and  they  exceed 
any  heights  of  Europe  or  North  America,  and,  if  their 
submerged  slopes  be  added,  they  are  among  the  most  lofty 
of  the  world.  The  total  altitude  above  the  sea  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  is  greater,  but  their  true  altitudes  are  usually 
overstated  by  nearly  one  half,  for  they  rise  from  a  plain 
which  has  already  attained  an  altitude  of  5000  to  7000 
feet,  while  the  Antillean  ranges  rise  straight  from  the  sea. 
Furthermore,  the  slopes  of  the  Antillean  Mountains  con- 
tinue downward  below  the  watery  horizon  for  enormous 
depths.  The  slopes  of  Porto  Rico,  for  instance,  not  quite 
4000  feet  of  which  are  exposed  above  the  sea,  descend  on 
the  northern  side  of  that  island  to  a  depth  of  24,000  feet, 
giving  a  total  declivity  of  more  than  five  miles.  In  order 
properly  to  appreciate  the  height  of  the  Santo  Domingo 
mountains  we  must  also  add  to  the  11,000  feet  projecting 
above  the  sea  12,000  feet  of  precipitous  submarine  slopes 
on  the  north  and  18,000  feet  on  the  south.  The  vertical 
slope  of  the  Sierra  Maestra,  8000  feet  of  which  are  exposed 
above  the  sea,  continues  downward  for  18,000  feet  beneath 


THE   GREAT  ANTILLES  31 

the  waters  lying  between  Cuba  and  Jamaica,  giving  a  total 
relief  of  26,000  feet.  In  fact,  the  configuration  of  these 
ranges  is  the  most  precipitous  of  the  known  world,  exceed- 
ing that  of  the  Himalayas,  which  would  be  comparable  with 
them  were  their  bases  surrounded  by  oceanic  waters  to  a 
depth  of  three  to  five  mUes. 

Another  peculiarity  of  these  mountains  is  the  fact  that 
they  are  not  made  up  of  untillable  and  barren  rocks,  like 
most  other  great  ranges  of  the  world,  but  are  largely  com- 
posed of  unconsolidated  clays  and  pebble,  which  yield  a 
wealth  of  vegetal  products  to  their  very  summits.  These 
higher  summits,  though  differing  in  origin,  are  similar  in 
composition  to  the  mantle  of  glacial  soils  which  constitutes 
the  tillable  lands  of  the  northern  United  States.  They  are 
the  fruit-  and  coffee-lands  of  unlimited  possibilities. 

The, Antilles  are  not  exclusively  mountainous.  There 
are  numerous  valleys,  plains,  and  plateaus,  often  of  wide 
extent  and  great  fertility,  which  will  be  further  mentioned 
in  our  descriptions  of  the  various  islands.  As  a  rule,  they 
are  densely  wooded  and  copiously  watered  to  the  very 
summits  of  the  mountains.  Many  of  the  streams  are  riv- 
ers of  great  beauty,  and  in  a  few  instances  are  navigable 
for  short  distances.  Some  of  these,  like  the  Cauto  and 
Sagua  of  Cuba,  and  the  Yaqui,  Neyba,  and  Artibonite  of 
Santo  Domingo,  are  of  great  length  and  volume. 

The  seaboard  of  the  Antilles  is  in  some  respects  quite 
different  from  that  of  the  remainder  of  the  islands,  being 
characterized,  in  general,  by  an  abundance  of  good  harbors, 
affording  excellent  anchorage,  which  are  lacking  in  many 
of  the  smaller  islands.  The  character  of  the  coast  is  vari- 
able. Large  stretches  are  composed  of  a  low  shelf  of  ele- 
vated reef  rock,  often  as  hard  as  adamant,  and  standing 
less  than  twenty  feet  above  the  sea,  known  as  seboruccOj 
which  extends  back  a  few  yards  against  a  rugged  back- 
coast  border;  in  other  places  the  land  border  consists  of 
high  bluffs  of  limestone,  with  or  without  a  few  feet  of 
shelving  beach  at  its  base.  Near  the  Windward  Passage 
there  is  a  series  of  these  bluffs  rising  600  feet  in  terrace- 


32  CUBA   AND   POKTO   KICO 

like-  arrangement.  Again,  there  are  small  stretches  of 
swamp-land,  and  alluvial  plains  at  the  mouths  of  rivers. 

The  resources  of  the  Antilles  are  also  more  varied  than 
those  of  the  other  islands,  for  they  not  only  produce  the 
chief  staple,  sugar,  in  great  quantities,  but  yield  abundant 
crops  of  coffee,  cocoa,  exportable  fruits,  cattle,  and  food- 
stuffs. 

The  only  important  metallic  mineral  resources  of  the 
West  Indies  are  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Antillean 
chain.     These  are  iron,  manganese,  gold,  and  copper. 

The  total  population  of  the  Great  Antilles  is  nearly 
3,700,000  people,  threefold  that  of  all  the  other  West 
Indian  Islands  combined.  This  population  is  diverse  in 
race  and  color,  and  has  distinct  local  peculiarities,  which 
will  be  treated  elsewhere.  Yet  the  people  of  the  four  chief 
Antillean  Islands  have  no  common  traits,  and  exhibit  re- 
markable differences  in  government  and  civilization.  It 
is  strange  to  see  lands  belonging  to  the  same  geographic 
group  and  equally  endowed  by  nature  develop  every 
antithesis  of  social  and  industrial  life,  and  to  observe  the 
influence  of  former  ownership  and  present  government 
upon  the  races  which  have  been  transplanted  there.  In 
Jamaica,  under  the  beneficent  rule  of  the  English  govern- 
ment, the  negro  is  provided  with  the  implements  and  im- 
provements of  the  highest  civilization,  and  imitates  in  his 
domestic  life  the  rural  customs  of  Great  Britain.  In  Santo 
Domingo  a  free  mulatto  has  developed  an  entirely  differ- 
ent character.  In  Haiti,  as  black  in  civilization  as  in  the 
color  of  its  inhabitants,  is  portrayed  the  degradation  which 
a  savage  race  may  retain,  without  civilizing  influences,  al- 
though centuries  have  lapsed  since  it  was  imported  across 
the  sea.  In  Cuba  may  be  seen  a  white  civilization  which 
has  developed  in  place  of  a  most  coiTupt  and  despotic  colo- 
nial administration ;  while  Porto  Rico  shows  how  closely  a 
transplanted  European  people,  trained  in  the  political  and 
social  conditions  of  the  mother-country,  may  repeat  the 
social  status  of  the  latter. 


o 


^ 


V.' 


CHAPTER  V 

THE   ISLAND   OF   CUBA 

Physical  features.  Situation,  commercial  and  strategic  position.  Out- 
lines, dimensions,  area.  The  configuration.  The  coast  and  littoraL 
Abundance  of  harbors.  The  bordering  keys.  The  interior  mountain 
ranges.  The  plains  of  Cuba.  The  cuchillas  of  the  east.  The  terraces 
of  Guantanamo.  Valleys  and  depressions.  Rivers,  lakes,  and  swamps. 
Caves  and  scenic  features. 


r 


/^UBA,  the  most  western  and  largest  of  the  four  Great 
\j  Antilles,  is  the  fairest,  most  fertile,  and  most  diver- 
sified of  the  tropical  islands;  its  economic  development 
during  four  centuries  of  European  occupation  has  fully 
justified  the  title,  "  The  Pearl  of  the  Antilles,"  first  given 
to  it  by  Columbus,  although  its  capital  city  may  no  longer 
uphold  the  motto  of  its  coat  of  arms,  "The  Key  of  the 
New  World."^  It  has  but  a  small  proportion  of  untillable 
declivities  and  rocky  areas,  such  as  are  found  in  New 
England;  no  barren  fields  of  volcanic  lava,  such  as  occur 
in  the  Central  American  lands;  no  arid  areas,  like  those 
which  make  up  so  large  a  proportion  of  Mexico  and  the 
western  half  of  the  United  States ;  no  stretches  of  sterile, 
sandy  lands,  like  those  of  Florida  and  other  coastal  South- 
ern States.  Its  proportion  of  swamp-lands  is  less  than 
that  of  the  average  American  seaboard  State.  The  whole 
island  is  covered  with  rich  soils,— fertile,  calcareous  loams, 
— which,  under  constant  humidity,  yield  in  abundance 
every  form  oi  useful  vegetation  of  the  tropical  and  tem- 
perate climds.V  The  configuration  and  geological  forma- 

\     v/  33 


34  CUBA   AND    POKTO   KICO 

tions  are  diversified;  there  is  a  variety  of  economic 
resources,  both  agricultural  and  mineral,  convenient  to 
an  extensive  littoral^  with  numerous  harbors  affording 
excellent  anchorage^ 

Its  essential  geogi-aphic  features  are  as  follows:  Area, 
including  1300  adjacent  keys,  45^000' square  miles, — slightly 
less  than  that  of  the  State  of  New  York,— of  which  ten 
per  cent,  is  cultivated,  four  per  cent,  forest-land,  and  the 
remainder,  for  the  most  part,  unreclaimed  wilderness. 
Its  length  is  nearly  seven  times  that  of  Long  Island,  and 
stretches  between  the  longitudes  of  New  York  and  Cin- 
cinnati— a  distance  of  720  miles.  Its  width  is  eveiy- 
where  less  than  100  miles.  As  regards  diversity  of  relief, 
its  eastern  end  is  mountainous,  with  summifs^^and- 
ing  high  above  the  adjacent  sea;  its  middle  portion  is 
wide,  consisting  of  gently  sloping  plains,  which  form  a 
continuous  field  of  sugar-cane,  well  drained,  high  above 
the  sea,  and  broken  here  and  there  by  low,  forest-clad 
hills;  and  its  western  third  is  a  picturesque  region  of 
mountains,  with  fertile  slopes  and  vaUeys,  of  different 
structure  and  less  altitude  than  those  of  the  east.  It  is  in 
this  last  district  only^that  the  aromatic  tobaccos  which 
have  made  the  island  famous  are  grown.  Over  the  whole 
is  a  mantle  of  tender  vegetation,  rich  in  every  hue  that  a 
flora  of  more  than  three  thousand  species  can  give,  and 
kept  green  by  mists  and  gentle  rains.  Indenting  the  rock- 
bound  coasts  are  a  hundred  pouch-shaped  harbors,  such 
as  are  but  rarely  found  in  the  other  islands  and  shores 
of  the  American  Mediterranean,  and  resembling  St.  Lucia, 
for  which  England  gave  up  the  rich  islands  of  Martinique 
and  Guadeloupe,  under  the  treaty  of  Paris. 

In  area,  in  natui'al  resources,  in  the  number  and  char- 
^acter  of  its  inhabitants,  in  strategic  position  as  regards 
proximity  to  the  American  and  Mexican  seaboards,  Cuba 
is  by  far  the  most  important  of  the  Great  Antilles.  It^is 
very  near  the  center  of  the  gi-eat  American  Mediterranean, 
separating  the  GuK  of  Mexico  from  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and 


THE  ISLAND   OF  CUBA  35 

in  close  proximity  to  our  Southern  seaboard,  the  coast  of 
Mexico,  the  Bahamas,  Haiti,  Jamaica,  Central  America, 
the  isthmus,  and  the  coast  of  South  America. 
"^The  island  commands  three  important  maritime  gate- 
ways: the  Strait,  of  Florida,  leading  from  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  the  Windward  Passage, 
leading  from  th'e  Atlantic  into  the  Caribbean  Sea ;  and  the 
Yucatan  Channel,  connecting  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the 
Gulf.  The  first  and  last  of  these  completely  command 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  is  less  than  96|  miles  from  Key 
West  to  the  north  coast  of  Cuba.  From  the  east  end  of 
the  island  Haiti  and  Jamaica  are  visible,  54  and  85  miles 
distant  respectively.  From  the  western  cape  (San  Anto- 
nio) to  Yucatan  the  distance  is  130  miles. 

The  outline  of  the  island,  commonly  compared  by  the 
Spaniards  to  a  bird's  tongue,  also  resembles  a  great  ham- 
mer-headed shark,  the  head  of  which  forms  the  straight, 
south  coast  of  the  east  end  of  the  island,  from  which  the 
sinuous  body  extends  westward.  This  analogy  is  made 
still  more  striking  by  two  long,  finlike  strings  of  keys,  or 
islets,  which  extend  backward  along  the  opposite  coasts, 
parallel  to  the  main  body  of  the  island. 

The  longer  axis  of  the  island  extends  from  the  seventy- 
fourth  to  the  eighty-fifth  meridian,  while  its  latitude, 
between  19°  40'  and  23°  33'  N.,  embraces  nearly  four  de- 
grees. Its  length,  following  an  axial  line  drawn  through 
its  center  from  Cape  Maysi  to  Cape  San  Antonio,  is  730 
miles.  Its  width  varies  from  90  miles  in  the  east  to  less 
than  20  miles  in  the  longitude  of  Havana.  Cape  Maysi,  on 
the  east,  lies  directly  south  of  New  York,  and  Cape  San 
Antonio,  on  the  west,  is  situated  nearly  south  of  Cin- 
cinnati. 

At  the  outset  the  reader  should  dispossess  his  mind  of 
any  preconceived  idea  that  the  island  of  Cuba  is  in  any 
sense  a  physical  unit.  On  the  contrary,  it  presents  a 
diversity  of  topogi-aphic,  cHmatic,  and  cultural  features, 
which,  as  distributed,  divide  the  island  into  at  least  three 


36  CUBA  AND  POETO  EICO 

distinct  natural  provinces,  for  convenience  termed  the 
eastern,  central,  and  western  regions. 
4  No  accurate  trigonometric  surveys  have  been  made  of 
the  island  and  its  bordering  islets,  including  ^70  keys 
adjacent  to  the  north  coast  and  730  to  the  south,  or  of  the 
Isle  of  Pines,  a  large  and  important  dependency.  Nearly 
all  existing  geographic  data  have  been  based  upon  a  large 
map  compiled  by  Pichardo,  engraved  in  Barcelona,  which 
was  a  compilation  of  local  surveys  of  various  and  doubtful 
degrees  of  accuracy.  The  area  of  the  main  island  has  been 
estimated  at  from  40,000  to  43,000  square  miles,  that  of 
the  Isle  of  Pines  at  1214,  and  that  of  all  ^he  keys  combined 
at  1350.  Some  of  the  larger  keys,  like  Eomano,  on  the 
north  side,  are  140  square  miles  in  extent.  Reclus  esti- 
.  mates  the  total  at  45,883  square  miles,  an  area  nearly  one . ' 
fourth  the  size  of  Spain. 

The  distinct  types  of  relief  include  regions  of  high 
mountains,  low  hills,  dissected  plateaus,  level  plains,  inter- 
montane  valleys,  and  coastal  swamps.  With  the  exception 
of  a  strip  of  the  south- central  coast,  the  island,  as  a  whole, 
stands  well  above  the  sea,  is  thoroughly  drained,  a,nd  pre- 
sents a  rugged  aspect  when  viewed  from  the  sea.  ^^ About 
one  fourth  the  total  area  is  mountainous,  three  fifths  are 
rolling  plain,  valleys,  and  gentle  arable  slopes,  and  the  re- 
mainder is  swampy. 

^  The  coast  of  Cuba  is  very  extensive,  measuring,  without 
its  meanderings,  nearly  2000  miles.  On  Pichardo's  map 
the  coast-line,  with  all  its  embayments  and  including  the 
islets,  is  over  6800  miles.  On  all  sides,  except  the  south- 
central  and  where  indented  by  pouch-like  harbors,  the 
coast  is  abrupt,  and  stands  above  the  sea  as  if  the  waters 
of  the  latter  were  rapidly  planing  away  what  had  once  been 
a  more  extensive  land.  In  many  places  the  immediate 
coast-line  is  a  narrow  bench  of  elevated  reef  rock,  or 
seborucco,  a  few  yards  wide  and  standing  about  fifteen 
feet  above  the  sea,  between  the  higher  bluffs  and  the 
water.    The  island  border  on  the  north  presents  a  low  cliff 


THE  ISLAND   OF   CUBA  37 

topography,  with  a  horizontal  sky-line  from  Matanzas 
westward,  gradually  decreasing  from  five  hundred  feet  at 
Matanzas  to  one  hundred  feet  on  the  west.  The  coast  of 
the  east  end  is  abrupt  and  rugged,  presenting  both  on  the 
north  and  south  sides  a  series  of  remarkable  terraces,  ris- 
ing in  stair-like  arrangement  to  six  hundred  feet  or  more, 
representing  successive  pauses  or  stages  in  the  elevation 
of  the  island  above  the  sea,  and  constituting  most  striking 
scenic  features.  West  of  Guantanamo  to  Cape  Cruz  the 
precipitous  Sierra  Maestra  rises  immediately  behind  and 
above  these  terraces.  The  south  coast  from  Cape  Cruz  to 
Cape  San  Antonio,  with  the  exception  of  a  brief  stretch 
between  Trinidad  and  Cienfuegos,  is  generally  low  and 
marshy. 

The  littoral  of  the  mainland  is  indented  by  numerous 
landlocked  harbors  of  peculiar  configuration,  which  are 
especially  adapted  for^CJommerce  and  refuge.  These  are 
described  under  transportation  and  communication. 

The  keys  adjacent  to  the  middle  third  of  the  island,  on 
both  the  north  and  south  sides  (the  famous  Jardines  of 
Columbus),  are  mostly  small  coral  or  mangrove  islets  which 
have  grown  up  from  shallow,  submerged  platforms  sur- 
rounding those  parts  of  the  island ;  in  certain  places  they 
form  barriers  to  the  mainland.  They  are  usually  unin- 
habited, owing  to  the  scarcity  of  potable  waters.  They 
constitute  a  formidable  obstacle  to  navigation,  except 
when  guided  by  skilful  pilotage,  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
present  many  sheltered  expanses  within  the  outer  line  of 
breakers. 

About  one  half  the  Cuban  coast  is  bordered  by  these 
keys,  which  are  largely  old  reef  rock,  the  creations  of  the 
same  coral-builders  that  may  now  be  seen  through  the 
transparent  waters  still  at  work  on  the  modern  shallows, 
decking  the  rocks  and  sands  with  their  gi*aceful  and  many- 
colored  tufts  of  animal  foliage.  On  the  north  coast  some 
of  the  keys  are  large  enough  to  form  extensive  islets, 
xminhabited,  except  by  fishermen  in  a  few  places  where 


38  CUBA   AND   PORTO   EICO 

fresh  water  lodges  in  depressions,  or  wells  up  through  the 
porous  rocks.  Thus  the  Cayos  del  Sabinal,  Guajaba, 
Romano,  and  Cocos,  separated  by  narrow  channels,  con- 
stitute almost  a  continuous  outlying  island  120  miles  in 
length.  Cayo  Jiomano,  the  largest  of  these  elevated  reefs, 
has  an  estimated  area  of  140  square  miles,  and  its  flatness 
is  relieved  by  three  hills. 

The  chain  of  keys  on  the  north  side  from  the  Sabinal  to 
the  Cocos  reefs  is  so  regular  and  pierced  by  such  narrow 
channels  that  it  might  be  regarded  as  a  peninsula  running 
parallel  with  the  mainland;  but  farther  west  it  is  con- 
tinued by  a  series  of  smaller  reefs  which  are  breached  by 
wider  openings  and  lie  close  to  the  shore.  Including  the 
western  reefs  and  keys,  this  outer  shore-line  has  a  total 
length  of  over  300  miles.  West  of 'Havana  other  fringing 
reefs  extend  for  about  140  miles  from  Bahia  Honda  to 
Cape  San  Antonio. 

On  the  south  side  of  Cuba  the  reefs  and  islets  are  even 
more  numerous  than  on  the  north,  but  they  are  far  less 
regularly  disposed,  and  are  not  parallel  with  the  shore. 
They  extend  a  gi*eat  distance  from  the  land  wherever  the 
relatively  smooth  water  is  not  exposed  to  the  scouring 
action  of  marine  currents.  These  reefs  are  somewhat  rare 
on  the  part  of  the  coast  adjacent  to  the  Windward  and 
Yucatan  passages.  Manzanilla  Bay,  however,  is  more 
than  half  covered  with  reefs,  which  are  continued  west- 
ward by  the  so-called  Cayos  de  las  Doce  Leguas,  or  Twelve- 
League  Keys.  Still  westward,  the  Isle  of  Pines  is  connected 
with  a  perfect  labyrinth  of  reefs  and  islets,  the  best  of 
which  are  known  as  the  Jardinillos  and  Jardines,  named 
from  the  verdure-clad  islets  strewn  like  gardens  amid  the 
blue  waters.  In  many  of  these,  springs  of  pure  water  are 
said  to  bubble  up  from  the  deep. 

The  interior  of  Cuba  has  not  been  sufficiently  surveyed 
to  make  it  possible  accurately  to  map  all  the  details  of  soil 
or  the  relief  of  the  surface,  especially  of  the  eastern  half 
of  the  island.    The  various  commissions  named  in  times 


THE  ISLAND   OF  CUBA  39 

past  by  the  Captains-General  to  make  reconnaissances 
avow  in  their  reports  that  the  lack  of  habitation  in  the 
greater  part  of  the  territory,  the  impenetrability  of  the 
forests,  the  insurmountable  Cordilleras,  and  the  scarcity 
of  means  and  time  have  prevented  them  from  carrying 
out  successfully  the  mapping  of  the  diverse  ramifications 
of  the  mountains,  the  tracing  out  of  their  salients  and 
valleys,  and  the  determination  of  their  extent,  altitude, 
and  geologic  structure.  It  seems  that  their  observations 
did  not  extend  east  of  the  seventieth  meridian,  where 
the  most  interesting  part  of  the  island,  from  a  scientific 
point  of  view,  is  found.  Furthermore,  the  results  of 
such  investigations  as  were  made  were  but  imperfectly 
published  in  fragments. 

In  a  previous  chapter  we  have  set  forth  the  elementary 
arrangement  of  the  Antillean  Mountains,  of  which  those 
of  Cuba  are  a  part.  The  higher  eminences  are  true  moun- 
tains of  deformation,  composed  of  disturbed  sedimentary 
rocks  with  igneous  intrusions.  The  mountains  of  this 
class  do  not  constitute  a  continuous  axial  backbone  to  the 
island,  as  popularly  supposed,  but,  so  far  as  they  can  be 
classified  at  all,  occur  in  three  distinct  and  independent 
groups,  known  as  the  eastern,  western,  and  central,  re- 
spectively, the  trends  of  which  overlap  one  another  en 
echelon. 

The  highest  of  the  well-defined  ranges  is  the  narrow, 
precipitous  SierraMaestra^^whjcli  dominates  the  straight 
east-and-west  coast  of  Santiago  de  Cuba.  This  range 
extends  through  two  and  one  half  degrees  of  longitude, 
from  Guantanamo  to  Cape  Cruz,  and  constitutes  an  inde- 
pendent feature,  topographically  different  from  the  other 
mountains  of  Cuba.  Geographically  it  belongs  in  the 
same  class  with  the  higher  summits  of  Haiti,  collectively 
making  the  master  range  of  the  Great  Antilles.  This 
range  is  very  precipitous  and  closely  hugs  the  coast-line. 
Its  crests  culminate  in  the  Pico  del  Turquino,  which  rises 
very  abruptly  from  the  sea  to  a  height  estimated  to  be  8600 


} 


40  CUBA   AND    POETO   EI(X) 

feet  in  altitude.  The  Cerro  del  Oro,  3300  feet  high,  is  an- 
other conspicuous  peak  in  the  ridge,  seen  about  half-way 
between  Santiago  and  Cape  Cruz.  La  Gran  Piedra,  in  this 
range,  near  Santiago,  is  5200  feet  high.  The  summit  of 
this  peak,  from  which  it  takes  its  name,  is  a  gigantic  block 
of  conglomerate,  which  seems  ready  to  topple  down.  East 
of  Santiago  the  range  is  called  the  Sierra  del  Cobre.  From 
base  to  summit  these  mountains  are  densely  wooded,  the 
vegetation  ranging  from  coarse  cactaceous  chaparral  on 
the  lower  and  drier  slopes  to  beautiful,  almost  indescriba- 
ble, forests  of  tree-ferns  in  the  higher  and  moister  alti- 
tudes. These  mountains  are  composed  of  non-calcareous 
conglomerates  and  shales  of  Mesozoic  and  Eocene  age, 
intruded  by  great  masses  of  dark-colored,  mid-Tertiary, 
igneous  rocks,  the  debris  of  which  makes  a  clay  and  gravel 
soil, — one  of  the  two  contrasting  types  which  constitute 
the  greatest  wealth  of  the  island, — the  whole  incrusted  on 
the  coastward  side  to  a  height  of  2000  feet  or  more  by 
white  limestones.  The  lower  slopes  are  terraced  after  the 
manner  of  all  the  east  end  of  Cuba,  as  previously  described. 
The  Sierra  Maestra  crest  closely  parallels  the  adjacent  sea- 
coast,  toward  which  its  slopes  descend  precipitously.  In- 
land, toward  the  north,  the  slope  is  gentler,  the  eroded 
lateral  ridges  leading  gi'adually  down  to  the  valley  of  the 
Cauto,  the  deep  east-and-west  indentation  of  which  nearly 
separates  these  mountains  from  the  region  to  the  north. 

A  second  gi*oup  of  mountains  is  the  Sierra  de  los  Or- 
ganos,  found  in  the  extreme  western  province  of  Pinar  del 
Rio,  extending  northeast  and  southwest  between  Mariel, 
near  Havana,  and  Cape  San  Antonio.  This  range  consists 
of  lower  ridges  and  of  geologic  formations  different  from 
those  of  the  Sierra  Maestra,  Its  summits  culminate  in  the 
Pan  de  Guajaibon,  west  of  Havana,  which  has  an  altitude 
of  2532  feet.  Its  rocks  are  composed  of  deformed  sedi- 
mentaries  of  supposed  Paleozoic,  Triassic,  Jurassic,  and 
Tertiary  age,  the  uplift  of  which  may  have  been  cumula- 
tive, but  culminated  during  the  close  of  the  last-mentioned 


THE  ISLAND   OF   CUBA  41 

period.^  The  Organos  are  covered  with  a  growth  of  pine 
{Pinus  cuhensis)  and  flanked  on  either  side  by  many  beau- 
tiful slopes  and  valleys,  those  on  the  south  constituting 
the  famous  Vuelta  Abajo  tobacco-lands. 

While  the  Sierra  de  los  Organos  proper  cease  just  west 
of  Havana,  the  strike  of  their  uplift,  accompanied  by  the 
same  character  of  dark-colored  protrusions  of  igneous 
rocks  flanked  by  the  white  Tertiary  limestones,  although 
void  of  the  older  rocks,  is  traceable  by  a  series  of  low, 
disconnected  hills,  in  a  gently  curved  line  passing  through- 
out the  central  plain  of  the  island  and  to  the  north  of  the 
third  or  central  group  of  Trinidad,  into  the  western  part 
of  the  province  of  Puerto  Principe.  Thus,  in  a  manner, 
this  line  of  uplift,  varying  in  intensity  from  the  sharp 
ridges  of  the  west  to  low,  flattened  folds  in  the  middle 
provinces,  constitutes  the  nearest  resemblance  to  an  axial 
backbone  of  the  body  of  the  sinuous  outline  of  the  island, 
while  the  Sierra  Maestra  constitutes  the  head.  The 
principal  components  of  these  interrupted  summits  of 
low  relief  dotting  the  plains  of  Havana,  Matanzas,  Santa 
Clara,  and  Puerto  Principe  are  as  follows:  Almost  due 

1  The  general  geology  of  the  island,  while  not  discussed  in  this  book,  is  well 
shown  in  many  of  the  illustrations.  It  may  be  briefly  stated  as  consisting  of 
an  older  basement  of  pre-Tertiary  sedimentary  rocks,  in  which  Cretaceous  and 
probably  Jurassic  fossils  have  been  found.  Above  this  there  are,  first,  littoral 
beds  composed  of  terrigenous  material,  and  then  a  great  thickness  of  white 
limestones  consisting  of  organically  derived  oceanic  material,  as  distinguished 
from  true  reef  rock  of  late  Eocene  and  Oligoeene  age.  The  island  was  re- 
claimed from  the  sea  and  assumed  its  present  relief  by  a  great  mountain-mak- 
ing movement  in  late  Tertiary  time,  succeeding  the  deposition  of  these  lime- 
stones. In  later  epochs,  Pliocene  and  Pleistocene,  the  island  underwent  a 
series  of  epeirogenic  subsidences  and  elevations  which  affected  the  coastal 
borders,  producing  the  wave-cut  cliffs  and  a  margin  of  elevated  reef  rock 
which  borders  the  coast  in  many  places,  as  can  be  recognized  in  the  illustra- 
tions of  the  cities  of  Havana  and  Baracoa.  So  far  as  its  history  is  known,  the 
island  has  never  been  connected  with  the  American  mainland,  although  such 
has  frequently  been  asserted  to  be  the  case.  These  assertions  have  been 
based  upon  the  erroneous  identification  of  certain  vertebrate  animal  remains. 
There  are  no  traces  in  the  animal  life  of  Cuba,  past  or  present,  which  justify 
this  conclusion.  Some  of  the  crystalline  rocks  may  be  very  ancient,  but  most 
of  them  are  mid-Tertiary  in  age. 


42  CUBA   AND   PORTO   RICO 

south  of  Havana,  commencing  east  of  the  village  of  San- 
tiago, is  a  range  of  low,  timbered  hills,  surrounded  by 
plains,  including  the  Tetas  de  Managua,  the  Areas  de  Ca- 
nasi,  the  Lomas  de  Camoa,  the  Escalera  de  Jaruco  (which 
is  visible  from  a  gi'eat  distance),  and  the  Pan  de  Matanzas. 
Along  the  north  coast  between  Havana  and  Matanzas  there 
are  many  of  these  hills,  which,  as  remarked  by  Humboldt, 
afford  some  of  the  most  beautiful  scenic  prospects  in  the 
world.  The  occurrence  of  these  lower  timbered  summits 
in  a  region  which  is  generally  level  plain  has  afforded  a 
safe  retreat  for  bands  of  insurgents,  who  made  them  a  base 
for  frequent  incursions  upon  the  outskirts  of  Havana  and 
Matanzas. 

For  a  brief  interval  these  hills  die  out  in  eastern  Matan- 
zas, but  upon  crossing  into  Santa  Clara,  and  from  thence 
on  into  Santiago  de  Cuba,  they  reappear  as  long  crest-lines 
and  flat- topped  plateaus,  following  a  line  near  and  parallel 
with  the  north  coast,  including  the  Sierras  Zatibonico  and 
Cubitas.  The  last-named  ridge  was  an  impregnable  in- 
surgent stronghold  during  the  revolution  of  1895-98,  and 
was  for  a  time  the  seat  of  the  insurgent  government. 

These  mountains  continue  along  the  north  side  of  the 
island  as  far  east  as  Gribara  and  Baracoa,  where  they  become 
inextricably  mixed  with  the  remarkable  topographic  fea- 
tures known  as  the  cuchillas — the  remnants  of-  a  dissected 
upland  plain,  cut  into  a  thousand  canons  and  salients, 
which  are  more  fully  discussed  under  the  head  of  the 
limestone  plains. 

^  The  third  group  of  high  mountains  occupies  a  limited  area 
between  Cienfuegos  and  Santo  Espiritu,  on  the  south  side 
of  the  central  portion  of  the  island  and  to  the  northward  of 
the  city  of  Trinidad,  and  entirely  south  of  the  axial  group 
above  described.  These  are  less  angular  than  the  emi- 
nences of  the  Sierra  Maestra,  and  consist  of  central  summits 
with  radiating  slopes,  the  highest  of  which  is  El  Potrerillo, 
2900  feet.  They  are  composed  of  semi-crystalline  lime- 
stones and  shales,  which  have  been  doubtfully  considered 


THE  ISLAND   OF  CUBA  43 

of  Paleozoic  origin,  flanked  by  highly  disturbed  Cretaceous 
and  Tertiary  beds.  Interspersed  between  these  mountains 
are  numerous  fertile  valleys,  giving  to  this  part  of  Cuba 
its  beautiful  and  diversified  landscape. 

The  three  dominant  groups  of  mountains  above  described 
may  be  either  topographic  irregularities  surviving  from 
earlier  epochs  or  eminences  pushed  up  with  the  great 
sheets  of  white  Tertiary  limestone.  This  white  limestone 
is  one  of  the  most  marked  features  of  the  Cuban  structure, 
and  in  all  the  intermediate  and  coastal  areas  the  dominant 
formation  of  the  island.  It  makes  a  thick  crust,  gently 
warped  and  undulated  in  many  directions,  and  has  great 
variation  in  altitude.  Its  maximum  elevation  (2500  feet) 
is  in  the  extreme  east ;  it  gradually  decreases  to  the  center 
of  the  island,  and  rises  again  to  the  west.  In  the  eastern 
and  northei'n  parts  of  the  province  of  Santiago  de  Cuba 
it  constitutes  an  elevated  plateau,  attaining  a  height  or 
nearly  1800  feet,  and  embeds  the  base  of  the  Sierra  Maestra. 
Here  it  is  so  dissected  by  drainage  that  it  gives  a  most 
rugged  and  picturesque  relief  to  the  distiict  which  it  occu- 
pies, and  presents  on  the  seaward  side  a  remarkable  series 
of  terraced  cliffs,  previously  mentioned  as  rising  in  stair- 
like arrangement  above  the  sea,  representing  successive 
elevations  of  the  island  in  Pliocene,  Pleistocene,  and  recent 
time.  This  topography  culminates  in  extensive  flat- topped 
summits  like  the  Mesa  Toar  and  the  Junki  (anvil)  of  Bara- 
coa  (1827  feet),  which  are  so  symmetrical  in  outline  that 
they  have  been  frequently  mistaken  for  volcanic  craters. 
The  older  and  upper  terraces  are  cut  into  numerous 
sharp,  knife- edged  salients,  known  as  cuchillas,  the  Span- 
ish word  for  knives.  The  lower  terraces  are  cut  straight 
across  by  wonderful  vertical  canons,  through  which 
beautiful  and  limpid  streams  find  outlet  to  the  sea.  In 
our  wide  travels  in  tropical  regions  we  have  never  seen 
landscapes  so  unique  as  in  this  wild  region  of  eastern 
Cuba,  nor  so  beautiful,  withal,  in  their  rugged  scarps 
and  exquisite  foliage.    These  terraces  extend  completely 


44  CUBA  AND   POETO  RICO 

around  the  eastern  end  of  the  island,  where  they  have 
their  finest  development  on  the  south  coast,  between  Cape 
Maysi  and  Guantanamo,  and  form  a  kind  of  dado  to  the 
Sierra  Maestra  range  along  the  whole  of  the  Santiago 
coast.^ 

Remnants  of  these  terraces,  such  as  flat- topped  summits 
of  circumdenudation,  occur  at  rare  intervals  as  far  west  as 
Matanzas,  but  with  decreasing  altitude.  The  most  con- 
spicuous of  these  are  the  Sierra  Matahambre  and  the  Pan 
de  Matanzas  (1200  feet).  To  the  westward,  in  the  provinces 
of  Matanzas  and  Havana,  the  arch  of  the  plateau,  which 
follows  the  northern  side,  descends  nearer  and  nearer 
sea-level,  and  develops  a  longer  but  gentle  slope  toward 
the  south  coast,  hence  presenting  a  cliff  topography  to  the 
north  sea,  and  gradually  sloping  southward,  as  the  great 
central  plain  of  Cuba,  into  the  Caribbean.  The  southern 
slope  produces  the  extensive  cienaga,  or  swamp,  known  as 
the  Zapata,  on  the  coast  opposite  Matanzas,  and  continues 
out  into  the  sea  toward  the  Isle  of  Pines,  forming  the  shal- 
low foundation  of  the  Jardinillo  keys. 

Through  the  provinces  of  Puerto  Principe  and  Santa 
Clara,  except  where  broken  by  the  central  mountains  of 
Trinidad,  this  limestone  stretch  forms  two  wide  coastal 
belts,  each  about  a  third  the  width  of  the  island,  separated 
by  a  central  axial  strip.  West  of  Santa  Clara  these  two 
belts  unite  into  the  broad  plains  of  Matanzas  and  Havana, 
where  they  constitute  the  central  sugar  region  of  Cuba, 
the  Vuelta  Arriba,  and  again  diverge  west  of  the  latter 
city  along  either  side  of  the  central  mountains  of  Pinar  del 
Rio,  where  they  constitute  the  Vuelta  Abajo.  These  lime- 
stone districts  weather  into  fertile  calcareous  soils,  red  and 
black  in  color,  and  of  a  quality  and  depth  unequaled  in  the 
world,  and  their  extent  in  the  level  region  is  an  almost 
continuous  field  of  sugar-cane. 

At  two  places  throughout  the  length  of  the  island  there 
are  depressions  crossing  it  where  the  divide  is  reduced  to 

1  The  battle  of  Santiago  was  fought  in  the  terraced  foot-hills. 


CHURCH    OF    MONTSERRAT 


YUMURI   VALLEY,    NEAR    MATANZAS 
MATANZAS 


u- 


THE  ISLAND   OF  CUBA  45 

less  than  five  hundred  feet.  The  first  of  these  is  between 
Moron  and  the  south  coast,  in  Puerto  Principe,  and  the 
second  between  Havana  and  Batabauo. 

Cuba  is  famous  for  the  beauty  and  fertility  of  its  valleys, 
some  of  which  are  wide  plains  through  which  rivers  and 
streams  thread  their  way  to  the  sea,  and  others  circular 
amphitheaters  surrounded  by  a  perimeter  of  picturesque 
hiUs. 

In  the  more  rugged  eastern  provinces  there  are  many 
valleys  of  the  former  class,  of  wide  extent  and  great  fer- 
tility. The  most  extensive  of  these  is  that  of  the  Rio  Cauto 
in  Santiago  de  Cuba.  It  is  situated  in  a  protected  position 
between  rugged  mountains  on  the  north  and  south,  and 
threaded  by  a  navigable  river,  at  the  mouth  of  which  is  the 
city  of  Manzanillo,  the  seaport  of  the  region.  This  valley 
is  densely  populated  and  has  been  one  of  the  chief  strong- 
holds of  the  most  recent  uprising.  It  produces  immense 
crops  of  sugar  and  other  Cuban  staples. 

In  Puerto  Principe  there  are  long  gi'ass-covered  valleys 
parallel  to  the  central  mountains  and  the  rugged  coasts, 
which  are  the  site  of  the  cattle-raising  industry  of  the 
island.  These  are  underlain  by  graveUy  soils,  less  fertile 
than  those  elsewhere  found. 

It  is  in  the  provinces  of  Matanzas  and  Santa  Clara, 
however,  that  Cuba's  most  charming  valleys  are  encoun- 
tered. One  of  the  most  attractive  features  of  Cuba,  and 
the  Mecca  of  every  tourist,  is  the  peculiar  circular  basin 
west  of  Matanzas,  known  as  the  valley  of  the  Yumuri. 
This  comparatively  level  depression  is  some  five  or  six 
miles  in  diameter,  and  dotted  with  picturesque  estates  and 
long  avenues  of  royal  palms.  Through  its  center  winds 
the  beautiful  Yumuri  River,  which  finds  an  outlet  at 
Matanzas  through  the  vertical  walls  of  an  exquisite 
canon.  It  is  inclosed  on  all  sides  by  steeply  sloping  walls 
rising  some  five  or  six  hundred  feet  to  the  level  of  a 
plateau  out  of  which  the  valley  has  been  cut.  It  has  been 
truly  said  that  it  is  impossible  to  describe  the  charm  of 


46  CUBA   AND   PORTO   EICO 

this  "  Happy  Valley,"  so  rich  in  its  vegetation,  and  so  de- 
lightfully is  it  watered  by  the  river  Yumuri  and  tributary 
streams ;  so  delicious,  even  on  the  hottest  summer  days,  is 
its  atmosphere,  tempered  by  the  Atlantic  breezes. 

The  valleys  of  Santa  Clara  around  Villa._Clara,  Cienfue- 
gos,  and  Trinidad  are  even  more  picturesque^  surrounded 
as  they  are  by  higher  and  more  pointed  mountains.  In 
some  of  these  from  twenty  to  thirty  large  sugar-estates 
can  be  counted  from  a  single  point  of  view. 

By  provinces  the  relief  may  be  summarized  as  follows : 
Santiago  de  Cuba  is  predominantly  a  mountainous  region 
of  high  relief,  especially  along  the  coasts,  with  many -in- 
terior valleys.  Puerto  Principe  and  Villa  Clara  are  broken 
regions  of  low  mountain  relief,  diversified  by  extensive 
valleys.  Matanzas  and  Havana  are  vast  stretches  of  level 
cultivated  plain,  with  only  a  few  hills  of  relief.  Pinar  del 
Eio  is  centrally  mountainous,  with  fertile  coastward  slopes. 

The  rivers  of  Cuba  are  frequent,  varying  in  character 
in  different  parts  of  the  island.  Considering  the  limited 
catchment  areas,  these  streams  are  remarkably  copious  in 
volume.  In  the  plains  of  the  central  and  western  prov- 
inces the  streams  flow  from  the  central  axis  toward  the 
corresponding  coast,  and  have  opalescent  waters,  like  those 
of  the  limestone  springs  of  Texas  and  Florida.  In  this 
part  of  the  island  these  streams  run  through  widely  slop- 
ing valleys,  with  only  slightly  indented  streamways,  and 
are  remarkably  free  from  lateral  ramifications.  Canons 
are  not  developed  until  they  reach  the  abrupt  plateau  edge 
of  the  north  coast.  Many  of  the  southward-flowing  streams 
of  this  portion  of  the  island  do  not  reach  the  sea  directly, 
but  disperse  into  vast  cienagas,  or  swamps.  Several  of 
the  stream  valleys,  like  that  of  the  Yumuri  of  Matanzas, 
are  accompanied  by  some  of  the  most  restful  and  beautiful 
landscapes  in  the  world.  The  Rio  Ai-mendaris,  which 
nearly  encircles  Havana  on  the  southward  and  empties 
into  the  sea  at  Chorerra,  affords  that  city  an  abundant 
supply  of  water.    In  this  and  other  portions  of  the  island 


THE   ISLAND    OF   CXJBA  47 

where  the  limestone  formation  prevails,  as  in  all  the  white- 
limestone  areas  of  the  tropics,  a  large  portion  of  the  drain- 
age is  subterranean,  accompanied  by  many  remarkable 
caverns.  The  rivers  Cuyajabos,  Pedernales,  Guanajay, 
Copellanias,  San  Antonio,  and  others  along  the  south 
slope  of  Pinar  del  Eio,  disappear  in  limestone  caverns, 
where  they  continue  their  seaward  coui'se.  The  Falls  of 
Rosario  in  this  province  are  of  great  beauty,  as  is  also  an 
immense  natural  bridge. 

In  the  province  of  Santiago  and  part  of  Puerto  Principe 
the  drainage  is  more  complicated.  Eio  Magari  of  Santi- 
ago has  three  fine  cataracts  before  reaching  the  sea  at 
Nipe.  The  limestone  plateaus  of  northern  and  eastern 
Santiago  de  Cuba  give  rise  to  many  rivers,  the  most  re- 
markable of  which  are  the  Cabanas,  the  Yamanigacy,  and 
the  Moa,  which  in  descending  the  escarpments  of  the  high 
levels  of  the  Toar  disappear  beneath  the  surface  and  re- 
appear on  a  lower  terrace,  over  the  edge  of  which  they  are 
precipitated  in  cascades  of  three  hundred  feet  to  the  coast. 
Other  streams,  such  as  the  Yumuri  of  the  east,  find  outlet 
through  sharply  cut  canons  indenting  the  limestone  cliffs  of 
the  back-coast  border.  The  central  portion  of  Santiago 
province  is  dominated  by  the  Rio  Canto  and  its  ramifica- 
tions. This  is  the  longest  river  on  the  island,  and  flows  in 
a  westerly  direction  for  a  distance  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
miles,  draining  the  wide  and  fertile  valley  to  which  its  name 
is  applied.  This  stream  is  na\dgable  for  small  boats  for  a 
considerable  distance  (eighty  to  one  hundred  miles),  but 
its  mouth  has  been  obstructed  by  bars.  The  Sagua  is  a 
tidal  stream  which  is  also  navigable  for  a  few  miles,  as 
are  also  the  Agabama  near  Trinidad,  the  Palma,  and  the 
Jatibonico. 

There  are  no  extensive  lakes  in  the  interior  of  Cuba,  the-^ 
only  one  of  note  being  Lake  Ai'iguanabo,  situated  in  the 
hilly  country  twenty  miles  southwest  of  Havana.    This  is 
about  six  square  miles  in  area,  thirty  feet  deep,  and  con- 
tains many  fishes.    It  is  drained  by  a  peculiar  river,  the 


48  CUBA  AND   PORTO   EICO 

San  Antonio,  which  disappears  beneath  the  roots  of  a  large 
ceiba-tree,  without  surface  continuity  to  the  sea. 

With  the  exception  of  the  great  Zapata  and  a  few 
swampy  places  toward  the  western  extremity  of  the 
island,  Cuba  is  singularly  free  from  marshy  or  poorly 
di'ained  land.  Occasionally  a  few  acres  of  playa,  or  low 
alluvial  land,  may  be  found  around  the  harbors,  but  the 
rivers  are  free  from  wide  bottoms,  and  the  land  as  a  whole 
stands  well  above  the  sea.  The  great  swamp  known  as  the 
Zapata  occupies  an  area  of  about  six  hundred  square  miles 
on  the  southern  coast,  opposite  Matanzas  and  Havana, 
bordering  the  shore  for  about  sixty  miles  between  the  Broa 
and  Cochinos  inlets.  It  stands  nearly  at  sea-level,  but 
although  almost  a  dead  flat,  it  presents  a  great  diversity  of 
aspects.  In  some  places  the  stagnant  waters  are  dammed 
up  by  sandy  strips  along  the  coast ;  in  others  the  surface 
is  concealed  by  dense  mangrove  thickets ;  elsewhere  chan- 
nels without  perceptible  currents,  the  remains  of  former 
rivers,  wind  sluggishly  amid  the  vegetation.  Here  and 
there  open  sheets  of  water  sparkle  in  the  sun,  while  others 
disappear  beneath  vast  areas  covered  by  the  wide  leaves  of 
water-lilies.  In  places  the  ground  is  firm  enough  to  sup- 
port a  clump  of  trees,  but  most  of  the  surface  consists  of 
quagmires,  or  boggy  expansions,  inaccessible  to  man  or 
beast. 

There  are  many  minor  features  in  the  physical  geog- 
raphy of  Cuba  which  cannot  be  here  described  in  detail. 
The  caverns  are  especially  beautiful.  The  largest  of  these 
underlie  the  cuchillas  of  the  east,  but  have  never  been 
systematically  explored  or  described. 

The  cave  of  Bellemar,  about  two  and  one  half  miles 
east  of  Matanzas,  is  one  of  the  sights  of  the  island.  It  is 
reached  by  a  pleasant  drive  along  the  seaside  and  through 
pretty  subui'bs.  The  entrance  is  situated  upon  the  top  of 
the  coastal  plateau  and  has  a  handsome  building.  This 
cave  is  open  for  three  miles  and  is  known  to  extend  down 
five  hundred  feet  in  the  white  limestone.     It  differs  from 


THE  ISLAND   OF  CUBA  49 

the  caverns  of  our  own  country,  such  as  those  of  Kentucky 
and  Virginia,  by  the  fact  that,  while  the  latter  impress  us 
with  their  magnitude,  the  Cuban  caves  overwhelm  us  with 
the  beauty,  snow-like  whiteness,  and  delicacy  of  the  stalac-  \ 
tite  and  stalagmite  forms ;  in  fact,  these  have  the  whiteness 
and  purity  of  Parian  marble. 

There  are  also  some  waterfalls,  natural  bridges,  and 
many  mineral  springs  and  baths.  Among  the  latter  may 
«  be  mentioned  the  springs  of  San  Diego  in  the  province  of 
Pinar  del  Rio,  which  have  long  been  a  favorite  resort  of  the 
Cubans.  Their  waters  are  reputed  to  be  unusually  salu- 
brious and  efficacious  for  many  diseases,  especially  those 
of  a  rheumatic  character. 

Madruga,  formerly  known  as  the  Cuban  Saratoga,  about 
two  hours'  ride  by  rail  to  the  southwest  of  Matanzas,  is 
also  celebrated  for  its  mineral  springs.  Its  high  situation 
renders  its  air  much  more  cool  and  pleasant  than  that  of 
the  plain  during  the  spring,  when  the  southwest  winds  are 
annoying.  The  baths  are  more  or  less  impregnated  with 
sulphur,  iron,  magnesia,  and  potassa,  and  are  recom- 
mended for  rheumatism,  paralysis,  weakness  of  the  stom- 
ach, scrofula,  etc.  There  are  several  of  these,  such  as  La 
Pila,  El  Templada,  etc.  The  water  is  rather  cool.  Invalids 
from  all  parts  of  the  island  formerly  came  here  and  found 
amusement  in  bathing,  riding,  and  walking  to  the  tops  of 
the  neighboring  hills,  from  which  fine  views  may  be  had. 
From  the  top  of  one  of  these,  Cupey,  the  view  of  the  valley 
of  Clara  is  very  fine.  As  far  as  the  eye  can  reach  one  can 
see  the  waving  cane-fields,  with  occasional  patches  of  woods 
or  clumps  of  palms,  and  lightened  by  the  tall  white  chim- 
neys of  the  sugar-mills,  while  in  the  distance  there  is  just 
the  faintest  glimpse  of  mountains  and  hills  fading  into  the 
hazy  sea.  Limonar,  one  of  the  most  pleasant  places  on 
the  island,  is  not  far  from  Matanzas.  Its  air  is  very  in- 
vigorating. From  there  one  can  drive  to  the  San  Miguel 
sulphur-baths. 


CHAPTEE  VI 

CLIMATE,  FLORA,  AND  FAUNA 

Temperature  and  precipitation.    Native  trees  and  flowers.     The  royal 
palm.     Scarcity  of  mammals.     Birds,  reptiles,  and  insect  life. 

EXTENSIVE  climatologic  records  are  not  available, 
except  for  Havana,  and  these  are  not  applicable  to 
the  whole  island,  where  it  is  but  natural  to  suppose  that 
altitude  and  position  relative  to  the  high  mountains  pro- 
duce great  variations  in  precipitation  and  humidity,  such 
as  are  observable  in  adjacent  islands.  The  Sierra  Maestra 
probably  presents  conditions  of  temperature  very  nearly 
the  same  as  the  Blue  Mountains  of  Jamaica,  where  the 
thermometer  at  times  faUs  almost  to  the  freezing-point. 

Everywhere  the  rains  are  most  abundant  in  summer, 
from  May  to  October— the  rainy  season.  As  a  rule,  the 
rains,  brought  by  the  trade-winds,  are  heavier  and  more 
frequent  on  the  higher  slopes  of  the  eastern  end,  although 
these  are  more  arid  near  sea-level.  At  Havana  the  annual 
rainfall  is  51.73  inches,  or  eight  inches  less  than  New 
Orleans.  Of  the  total,  32.37  inches  fall  in  the  wet  sea- 
son. In  New  Orleans  27  inches  fall -in  the  same  months. 
This  rainfall  is  not  excessive,  being  no  greater  than  that 
of  our  Eastern  States,  although  somewhat  differently  dis- 
tributed. The  air  at  this  place  is  usually  charged  with 
eighty-five  per  cent,  of  moisture,  which  under  the  tropical 
sun  largely  induces  the  rich  mantle  of  vegetation.  The 
average  number  of  rainy  days  in  the  year  is  one  hundred 

50 


CLIMATE,  FLOKA,  AND  FAUNA  51 

and  two.  There  is  but  one  record  of  snow  having  fallen 
in  Cuba;  this  was  in  1856. 

At  Havana,  in  July  and  August,  the  warmest  months, 
the  average  temperature  is  82°  F.,  fluctuating  between 
a  maximum  of  88°  and  a  minimum  of  76°.  The  highest 
temperatui'e  recorded  in  -Havana  for  ten  years  was  100°, 
or  four  degrees  less  than  the  highest  of  Washington  city 
for  the  same  period.  In  the  cooler  months  of  December 
and  Januaiy  the  thermometer  averages  72°,  the  maximum 
being  78°,  the  minimum  50°.  The  average  temperature  of 
the  year  at  Havana,  a  mean  of  seven  years,  is  77° ;  but 
in  the  interior,  at  elevations  of  over  300  feet  above  the  sea, 
the  thermometer  occasionally  falls  to  the  freezing-point  in 
winter,  hoar-frost  is  not  uncommon,  and  during  north 
winds  thin  ice  may  form.  The  maximum  temperature  is 
reached  between  noon  and  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon, 
and  the  minimum  between  dawn  and  sunrise.  The  average 
diurnal  range  of  temperature  is  about  10°. 

For  Matanzas,  on  the  coast,  about  fifty  miles  east  of 
Havana,  there  is  a  record  for  two  years,  beginning  in 
August,  1832,  and  ending  in  July,  1833,  and  again  begin- 
ning in  Januaiy,  1835,  and  ending  with  December  of  the 
same  year.  From  this  record  the  mean  annual  temperature 
at  Matanzas  appears  to  be  about  78°.  The  highest  tem- 
perature is  recorded  as  93°,  and  the  lowest  as  51°. 

At  Santiago,  on  the  extreme  southeast  coast,  the  tem- 
perature is  apparently  higher  than  on  the  northern  and 
western  coasts,  and  from  the  meager  data  available  appears 
to  be  about  80°,  with  an  average  difference  between  the 
warmest  and  coldest  months  of  about  6°  F.  A  very  §hort 
fragment  of  a  record- "bf  temperature  has  been  found  for 
Trinidad  de  Cuba,  about  midway  on  the  southern  coast, 
giving  the  average  temperature  from  December,  1851,  to 
March,  1852,  for  the  hours  of  7  a.  m.,  2  p.  M.,  and  7  p.  m.,  as 
72.8°,  78.7°,  and  75.3°  F.,  respectively ;  and  the  observer 
remarks  that  during  that  period  the  highest  temperature 
recorded  was  84°,  and  the  lowest  64.5°  F.,  and  the  greatest 


52  CUBA   AND    POKTO    KICO 

range  in  any  twenty-four  hours  was  9.5°,  which  occurred 
upon  the  day  having  the  highest  temperature. 

For  the  interior  of  the  island  only  two  temperature 
records  have  been  found,  namely,  for  Ubajay  and  the 
mines  of  San  Fernando.  Ubajay  is  (or  was  at  the  time) 
a  village  about  fifteen  miles  southwest  of  Havana,  and 
about  242  feet  above  sea-level.  Its  average  temperature 
from  four  years'  observations  was  73.6°  F.  The  record  is 
quoted  by  Baron  Humboldt,  and  was  made  during  1796- 
99.  The  place  given  as  the  San  Fernando  mines  is  about 
150  miles  eastward  of  Havana,  and  is  554  feet  above  sea- 
level.  The  temperature  record  is  for  the  year  1839,  and 
shows  an  average  of  75°.  From  these  records  the  average 
annual  temperature  of  the  interior  of  the  island  would 
appear  to  be  considerably  lower  than  on  the  coast. 

The  prevailing  wind  is  the  easterly  trade-breeze,  but 
from  November  to  February  cool  north  winds  {hs  nortes^ 
or  "northers"),— the  southern  attenuation  of  our  own 
cold  waves,— rarely  lasting  more  than  forty-eight  hours, 
are  experienced  in  the  western  portion  of  the  island,  to 
which  they  add  a  third  seasonal  change.  From  ten  to 
twelve  o'clock  are  the  hottest  hours  of  the  day;  after 
noon  a  refreshing  breeze  {la  virazon)  sets  in  from  the  sea. 

The  whole  island  is  more  or  less  subject  to  hurricanes, 
often  of  great  ferocity.  The  hurricane  of  1846  leveled 
nearly  two  thousand  houses  in  Havana,  and  sank  or 
wi'ecked  over  three  hundred  vessels.  In  1896  the  banana- 
plantations  of  the  east  were  similarly  destroyed.  Earth- 
quakes are  seldom  felt  in  the  western  districts,  but  are 
frequent  in  the  eastern. 

AU  in  aU,  the  climate  of  Cuba  is  much  more  salubrious 
than  it  has  been  painted.  The  winter  months  are  delight- 
ful,—in  fact,  ideal,— while  the  summer  months  are  more 
endurable  than  in  most  of  our  own  temtoiy.  The  current 
impressions  of  insalubrity  have  arisen  from  an  erroneous 
confusion  of  bad  sanitation  with  the  weather.  While  it  is 
true  that  sickness  follows  the  seasons,  the  former  would 


DRIVE   TO   THE    BELLAMAR    CAVES 


ROYAL    PALMS,  SUGAR-ESTATE 


OFFICIAL   BUILDING 


MATANZAS 


■\ 


CLIMATE,  FLORA,  AND  FAUNA  53 

be  greatly  allayed— almost  abated— if  public  hygiene  re- 
ceived proper  official  consideration. 

The  surface  of  the  island  is  clad  in  a  voluptuous  floral 
mantle,  which,  from  its  abundance  and  beauty,  first  caused 
Cuba  to  be  designated  the  Pearl  of  the  Antilles.  In  addi- 
tion to  those  introduced  from  abroad,  over  3350  native 
plants  have  been  catalogued.  Humboldt  said :  "  We  might 
believe  the  entire  island  was  originally  a  forest  of  palms, 
wild  limes,  and  orange-trees."  The  flora  includes  nearly 
all  the  characteristic  forms  of  the  other  West  Indies,  the 
southern  part  of  Florida,  and  the  Central  American  sea- 
board. Nearly  all  the  large  trees  of  the  Mexican  Tierra 
Caliente,  so  remarkable  for  their  size,  foliage,  and.f ragrance, 
reappear  in  western  Cuba.  Numerous  species  of  palm, 
including  the  famous  royal  pahn  {Oreodoxa  regia),  occur, 
while  the  pine-tree,  elsewhere  characteristic  of  the  tem- 
perate zone  and  the  high  altitudes  of  the  tropics,  is  found 
associated  with  palms  and  mahoganies  in  the  province  of 
Pinar  del  Rio  and  the  Isle  of  Pines,  both  of  which  take  their 
names  from  this  tree.  Among  other  woods  are  the  lignum- 
vitsB,  granadilla,  the  coco-wood,  out  of  which  reed-instru- 
ments are  made,  mahogany,  and  Cedrela  odorata,  which  is 
used  for  cigar-boxes  and  linings  of  cabinet  work.  Fustic^ 
logwood,  and  many  species  of  mahogany  abound. 

Although  three  hundred  years  of  cultivation  have  ex- 
terminated the  forests  from  the  sugar-lands  of  the  center 
and  west,  it  is  estimated  that  in  the  hills  of  those  districts 
and  the  mountains  of  the  east  nearly  thirteen  million  acres 
of  uncleared  forest  remain. 

Rich  and  nutritious  grasses  are  found  throughout  the 
island,  affording  excellent  forage  for  stock.  The  pineapple, 
manioc,'  sweet  potato,  and  Indian  corn  are  indigenous. 
When  the  flora  of  Cuba  is  studie'd  geographically,  it  will 
doubtless  be  grouped  under  several  subdivisions. 

First  among  the  beautiful  trees  of  Cuba  are  the  palms, 
some  twenty-six  varieties  of  which  give  shade,  food,  and 
life.    At  the  head  of  these  stands  the  royal  palm,  a  tree 


54  CUBA   AND    POKTO   EICO 

peculiar  to  the  island.  This  majestic  tree  consists  of  a  tall, 
spindle-shaped  trunk  of  fibrous  wood,  supporting  a  cluster 
of  pinnate  leaves.  It  is  a  marvel  of  beauty  and  utility, 
and  is  the  most  common  of  all  trees  in  Cuba.  It  is  met 
with  almost  everywhere ;  in  the  center  of  broad  pasture- 
lands  it  often  stands  alone,  tall  and  straight,  while  border- 
ing the  cultivated  fields  of  the  rich  planter  it  forms  shady 
avenues  to  his  dwelling.  Again,  its  seed  finds  root  amid 
the  gloom  of  the  forest,  sending  the  tall  shaft  high  up  to 
find  room  for  its  fairy-like  cluster  of  plumes  in  the  free  air 
above.  On  the  plains  it  often  forms  delicious  groves  of 
shade,  and  on  the  distant  mountain  it  may  be  seen  rearing 
its  plumed  crest  against  the  sky,  while  in  the  valley  below 
its  dark  leaves  murmur  softly  in  cadence  with  the  winding 
river  over  which  they  sway. 

This  palm  has  been  called  the  blessed  tree,  for  every  part 
of  it  has  its  usefulness  to  mankind.  Certain  medicinal 
qualities  are  claimed  for  its  roots,  and  its  trunk  is  easily 
split  into  strips,  making  excellent  boards  for  the  siding  of 
houses,  benches,  and  even  tables.  As  the  trunk  is  without 
any  bark,  and  its  center  is  very  porous,  increasing  in  density 
toward  the  outer  surface,  which  is  nearly  as  hard  as  glass, 
it  is  only  the  outside  shell  which  furnishes  these  boards. 
From  this  hard,  fibrous  wood  canes  are  made,  which  take  a 
most  beautiful  polish.  The  leaves  of  the  palm  grow  from 
the  center  of  the  trunk,  first  in  the  form  of  a  delicate  spire 
shooting  up,  which,  gradually  unfolding  itself,  forms  a  new 
leaf.  These  leaves  continue  to  gi'ow  from  the  central  spire 
to  a  great  length,  forming  the  cluster  which,  in  the  case  of 
the  royal  palm,  resembles  so  much  a  bunch  of  enormous 
plumes.  The  leaves,  when  they  cannot  grow  any  more, 
drop  to  the  ground  from  the  bottom  of  the  cluster,  thus 
making  room  for  the  new  ones  which  are  always  coming 
out  of  the  center.  The  bud  or  root  of  the  central  spire, 
from  which  the  leaves  grow,  consists  of  a  tender  substance 
buried  deep  down  within  the  cluster  of  green  leaves,  and 
forms  a  very  palatable  food,  either  in  the  raw  state,  or 
cooked  as  a  vegetable,  or  made  into  a  preserve  with  sugar. 


CLIMATE,  FLOEA,  AND  FAUNA  55 

One  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  royal  palm  is  the  stem  of 
its  long  leaves.  It  is  semicircular,  and  embraces  the  trunk 
of  the  tree,  holding  the  leaf  in  place  until  it  withers  and 
drops  to  the  ground.  This  stem  is  called  the  yagiia.  It 
resembles  a  thin  board,  often  from  four  to  six  feet  tall,  and 
the  Cuban  insurgent  makes  it  serve  him  a  variety  of  pur- 
poses. For  example,  in  the  field  it  frequently  is  made  to  do 
duty  as  a  plate  by  simply  cutting  off  a  section  of  it.  By 
soaking  in  water  it  is  rendered  pliable,  so  that  it  may  be 
folded  almost  as  readily  as  a  piece  of  stiff  paper.  Thus 
softened,  it  is  folded  at  the  ends,  something  after  the  fashion 
of  a  baker's  paper  hat,  and  fastened  with  wooden  pins.  In 
this  shape  it  is  called  a  catarro,  and  serves  the  Cuban^ 
farmer  as  a  water-bucket,  or  a  wash-basin,  or  a  receptacle 
for  milk,  lard,  cheese,  eggs,  or  other  products.  A  group  of 
rebels  may  often  be  seen  using  a  yagua  thus  folded  as  a 
kettle  in  which  to  cook  their  breakfast  of  beef  and  yams. 
The  water  keeps  the  fibrous  wood  from  burning,  and  the 
food  thus  cooked  requires  no  salt  other  than  that  which  is 
.  extracted  from  the  yagua  in  the  process  of  cooking.  It  is 
also  said  that  in  case  of  absolute  necessity  salt  could  be 
obtained  by  the  simple  process  of  boiling  water  in  a  catarro 
when  green,  and  one  enthusiast  estimates  that  a  dozen 
catarros  would  produce  a  pound  of  salt. 

The  fauna  of  Cuba  is  peculiar.  Only  two  land  mammals 
are  known  to  be  indigenous  to  the  island.  One  of  these  is 
a  i::odent^  as  large  as  our  domestic  rabbit,  known  as  the 
agouti,  which  still  inhabits  the  rocks  and  hills  of  the  east- 
ern end  of  the  island  in  great  numbers.  This  animal,  which 
is  found  only  in  the  West  Indies,  occurs  also  in  the  other 
Antilles  and  the  Windward  Islands,  excepting  Jamaica. 
The  other  land  mammal  is  a  peculiar  insectivore,  soleno- 
don,  belonging  to  a  family  of  which  other  representatives 
are  known  only  from  Madagascar. 

Among  the  reptiles  may  be  mentioned  a  species  of  iguana, 
in  the  eastern  end  of  the  island.  There  are  also  a  few 
snakes,  none  of  which  is  poisonous  or  vicious.  The  na- 
tives are  not  a  little  proud  of  this  fact,  and  even  assert 

,V 


56  CUBA   AND    PORTO    KICO 

that  venomous  species  when  introduced  gradually  lose  their 
poison.  There  are  no  venomous  reptiles  in  the  island. 
There  is  one  enormous  variety  of  boa,  called  the  maja,  of 
immense  strength.  It  is  perfectly  black,  as  thick  as  one's 
arm,  and  capable  of  swelling  itself  out  to  nearly  five  times 
its  natural  size,  and  has  a  blood-red  mouth— all  of  which 
sounds  very  alarming.  But  he  is  a  lazy  fellow  and  does 
not  trouble  himself  about  human  beings,  being  satisfied 
with  pigs  and  goats  and  even  small  game.  The  cayman,  or 
crocodile,  is  found  on  the  Isle  of  Pines,  the  same  species 
which  also  occurs  in  the  southern  part  of  Florida,  Jamaica, 
and  Central  America.  A  few  fresh-water  fishes  are  found 
in  the  streams,  mostly  of  the  family  Cyclidoi,  represented 
by  species  having  a  superficial  resemblance  to  our  sun- 
fishes.  A  large  lepidosteus,  similar  to  the  alligator-gar  of 
our  own  Southern  States,  is  found.  The  Cyprinodontidce  are 
also  represented  by  two  or  three  genera ;  these  are  related 
to  the  killies.  In  the  caves  of  Cuba  two  blind  fishes  are 
found,  one  of  which  belongs  to  a  family  occurring  elsewhere 
only  in  the  great  depths  of  the  sea. 

The  insect  life  is  abundant  and  beautiful.  There  are 
also  many  arachnids.  While  the  sting  of  the  scorpion  and 
bite  of  the  spider  are  temporarily  painful,  neither  of  them 
results  in  serious  consequences. 

The  most  interesting  featm-es  of  the  fauna  of  Cuba  are 
the  wonderful  land-  and  fresh- water  moUusks,  whose  size 
and  gorgeous  coloring,  like  those  of  the  Helix  pida,  place 
them  among  the  most  beautiful  objects  of  the  molluscan 
kind.  The  birds  of  Cuba  are  numerous,  including  both 
indigenous  and  migratory  forms  from  other  lands.  The 
parrot  is  the  most  conspicuous  of  these,  the  others  being 
of  smaller  size.  There  is  only  one  humming-bird  indige- 
nous to  the  island.  The  shallower  waters  of  the  borders  are 
inhabited'alsoby  that  peculiar  marine  mammal,  the  manatee. 

Collectively  the  fauna  of  Cuba,  like  that  of  all  the  islands^ 
shows  long  isolation  from  other  lands. 


VIEW   IN    THE   BOTANICAL   GARDENS 


FRUIT-STAND 


A   MARKET-PLACE 


1 
LECHE   A   DOMICILIO"  DONKEYS    LOADED   WITH    WOOD 


HAVANA 


CHAPTER  VII 

HEALTH  AND   SANITATION 

Natural  healthfulness  of  the  island.  Ordinary  diseases  due  to  tropical 
situation.  Epidemics  and  yeUow  fever.  Hygienic  precautions  and 
suggestions. 

BEING  within  the  tropics,  Cuba  is  naturally  subject  to 
the  diseases  peculiar  to  them,  such  as  malarial,  bil- 
ious, and  intermittent  fevers,  and  liver,  dysentery,  and 
stomach  complaints,  the  latter  being  chargeable  more  to 
indiscretion  than  climate,  however.  It  is  naturally  more 
healthful  than  any  of  the  other  islands,  with  perhaps  the 
exception  of  Jamaica.  Unfortunately,  these  superior 
natural  advantages  are  offset  by  the  sanitary  conditions 
of  the  cities,  the  death-rate,  which  is  the  best  index  as  a 
rule,  being  entirely  too  large.  According  to  Chaille,  "  the 
actual  sanitary  condition  of  the  principal  ports  of  Cuba  is 
very  unfavorable,  since  in  recent  years  their  death-rates 
have  ranged  from  31.9  to  66.7  per  1000."  The  annual  death- 
rate  of  Havana,  estimated  from  the  best  attainable  sources, 
was  found  by  Chaille  to  be  36.3  per  1000 ;  of  Guanabacoa, 
39.8;  of  Marianao,  39.5.  The  sanitary  condition  of  the 
inland  towns  is  very  little,  if  at  all,  better  than  that  of  the 
seaports.  "The  high  death-rates  of  Guanabacoa  and  of 
Marianao  are  especially  notable,  because  these  suburban 
towns,  within  three  and  six  miles  of  Havana,  are  summer 
resorts,  and  enjoy,  especially*  Marianao,  a  high  repute  for 
salubrity." 

57 


58  CUBA  AND  POETO  RICO 

If  we  compare  these  rates  with  that  of  London  (18.8)  or 
those  of  some  of  the  principal  seaport  cities  in  the  United 
States,  it  will  be  evident  that  there  is  ample  room  for 
sanitary  regeneration. 

The  chief  diseases  causing  death  in  Havana  are,  first, 
tuberculosis;  second,  the  group  of  intestinal  diseases  in- 
cluding diarrhea,  dysentery,  and  cholera  infantum;  and, 
third,  yellow  fever,  a  disease  which  chiefly  affects  strangers. 
Of  these  diseases  the  first  class  is  world-wide,  and  need 
not  be  discussed  further  than  to  say  that  its  presence 
here  is  favored  by  the  prevalent  humidity,  and  that 
those  affected  with  it  should  keep  away  from  the  wet 
tropics  in  general.  Of  the  second  group  of  diseases,  their 
occurrence  in  Cuba  is  largely  due  to  an  ignorance  of  pre- 
cautionary hygiene,  concerning  exposure,  water,  and  food, 
which  is  a  little  denser  there  than  in  our  own  countiy. 
Their  elimination  is  dependent  upon  education.  The  third 
disease — the  horrible  vomito,  or  yellow  fever — is  a  serious 
problem,  beyond  individual  control,  and  requiring  the  at- 
tention of  united  governmental  action.  This  disease  is  now 
thoroughly  established  in  Havana,  which  was  at  one  time 
"  justly  considered  one  of  the  most  healthful  localities  on 
the  island."  Parts  of  the  city  are  permanently  infected 
with  the  germs  of  the  disease,  and  are  considered  one  of  the 
main  foci  from  which  it  is  spread,  and  the  source  of  all  of 
its  outbreaks  in  this  country. 

The  occurrence  of  this  disease  in  Havana  has  been 
studied  in  its  every  aspect  by  the  highest  medical  officers 
of  our  army  and  marine  hospital  sei'vice,  and  its  probable 
causes  have  been  admirably  set  forth  by  Surgeon-General 
Sternberg  in  the  "  Century  Magazine  "  of  August,  1898.  It 
is  shown  that  the  cause  may  not  be  the  filthy  condition  of 
the  harbor  so  much  as  the  densely  crowded  and  unsanitary 
condition  of  the  houses  of  the  poor,  together  with  the 
primitive  disposition  of  the  sewage.  Of  the  various  evils 
recounted  in  connection  with  the  subject  of  houses,  there 
are  some  which  deserve   special   attention.    Many  facts 


HEALTH  AND   SANITATION  59 

besides  those  associated  with  the  holds  of  vessels  justify 
the  belief  that  the  growth  of  the  poison  of  yellow  fever  is 
specially  favored  in  warm,  moist,  ill- ventilated  places, 
where  air  is  closely  confined.  A  special  report  on  the 
density  of  the  population  of  Havana  compared  with 
numerous  other  cities  has  shown  that  more  than  three 
fourths  of  the  people  of  Havana  live  in  the  most  densely 
populated  localities  in  the  world.  A  tropical  climate  ren- 
ders this  evil  still  greater.  The  low-lying  floors  touching 
the  earth,  the  small,  densely  packed  houses,  the  unusually 
contracted  ventilating- space  in  their  rear,  the  large  un ven- 
tilated excavation  for  privies  and  sinks,  all  furnish,  as  is 
firmly  believed,  the  most  favorable  breeding-places  for  the 
poison  of  yellow  fever.  In  addition,  statistics  prove  that, 
in  great  cities  subjected  to  ordinarily  unfavorable  condi- 
tions, the  denser  the  population,  the  sicklier  and  shorter 
the  lives  of  the  inhabitants.  Common  sense  and  experi- 
ence unite  to  teach  that  the  denser  a  population,  the  more 
wide- spread  and  frightful  the  havoc  of  communicable 
diseases. 

Dr.  Sternberg  states  that  he  fully  believes  that  it  is 
practicable  to  put  the  city  of  Havana  in  such  a  sanitary 
condition  that  it  would  be  exempt  from  yellow  fever.  But 
that  this  is  an  undertaking  of  considerable  magnitude,  in- 
volving the  expenditure  of  large  sums  of  money,  and  re- 
quiring much  time,  will  be  apparent  when  we  have  taken 
account  of  the  nature  of  the  sanitary  improvements  ne- 
cessary for  the  accomplishment  of  the  desired  result. 

Surgeon- General  Weyman  is  equally  positive  that  Ha- 
vana may  be  rid  of  this  disease,  which  is  such  a  menace 
to  our  country.  England  has  driven  it  from  permanent 
occupation  of  Jamaica  and  other  West  Indian  Islands,  and 
Mexico  has  excluded  it  from  Vera  Cruz,  where,  until  the 
past  ten  years,  it  had  an  even  more  tenacious  hold  than  in 
Havana. 

Yellow  fever  occurs  more  or  less  in  all  the  denser  cities 
of  the  island ;  in  fact,  in  the  cities  of  all  the  islands  of  the 


60  CUBA  AND   PORTO   RICO 

West  Indies  except  those  under  British  rule,  from  which 
it  has  been  eliminated  by  perfect  quarantine  and  internal 
sanitation.  It  is  essentially  a  disease  of  the  sea-coast,  and 
especially  of  large  cities  in  an  unsanitaiy  condition ;  but 
when  circumstances  are  favorable  it  may  extend  into  the 
interior,  following  routes  of  travel,  and  especially  navigable 
rivers,  of  which  there  are  but  few  in  Cuba. 

It  is,  however,  confined  to  the  lower  levels,  even  in 
tropical  or  subtropical  regions.  In  the  Antilles  the  disease 
rarely  prevails  at  an  altitude  above  seven  hundred  feet, 
and  hence  a  large  part  of  Cuba  is  free  from  it. 

In  these  pages  I  have  endeavored  to  eliminate  personal 
experiences,  but  while  on  the  subject  of  health  and  sani- 
tation I  am  tempted  to  depart  from  this  rule.  The  greater 
part  of  my  life  has  been  spent  in  traveling  in  unsanitary 
regions,  including  many  years  in  the  worst  plague-spots  of 
the  tropics.  By  taking  advantage  of  the  best  hygienic 
rules  and  precautions,  I  have  been  able  to  avoid  the  fatality 
which  has  overtaken  many  of  my  predecessors  in  geological 
exploration. 

Three  rules  I  have  followed  invariably:  first,  to  adapt 
my  habits  of  dress,  food,  and  hours  of  work  and  rest  to 
those  of  the  people  of  the  country ;  secondly,  never  in  any 
circumstances  to  drink  a  di'op  of  native  water  where  it 
could  possibly  be  avoided,  and  if  so  always  to  boil  it.  For 
this  purpose  I  have  always  carried  an  alcohol-lamp  and  a 
tin  canteen,  in  which,  when  boiled  water  could  not  other- 
wise be  obtained,  I  could  myself  attend  to  the  matter. 
Twice  when,  in  desperation  after  tedious  exercises,  I  yielded 
to  the  temptation  of  drinking  the  native  water  unboiled,  the 
results  were  almost  fatal.  The  third  rule  has  been  never 
to  linger  around  the  densely  crowded  and  unsanitary  areas 
of  cities,  and  always  to  choose  a  room  facing  on  the 
street. 

I  have  also  carefully  avoided  the  temptation  to  eat  any 
kinds  of  fruits  which  may  be  offered,  especially  bananas, 
which,  in  the  tropics,  have  an  unpleasant  acidity  that 


A    FUNERAL   CAR 

SCENES   IN   CUBA 


HEALTH  AND   SANITATION 


61 


deranges  the  digestion,  not  having  undergone  the  mellow- 
ing and  ripening  process  which  this  fruit  passes  through 
on  its  voyage  to  this  country. 

Finally,  it  may  be  said  that  exposure  to  the  heavy  rain- 
falls of  the  tropics,  if  not  immediately  followed  by  a  change 
of  clothing,  invariably  conduces  to  malaria. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

GEOGRAPHIC   SUBDIVISIONS 

Administrative  departments.  Numerical  popvilation.  Resume  of  previ- 
ous history  leading  to  present  conditions.  Administration  and  gov- 
ernment Absolutism  of  authority.  Its  effects  and  influences. 
Religion  and  education. 

BEGINNING  on  the  west,  Cuba  is  divided  into  six 
provinces,  as  follows :  Pinar  del  Rio,  Havana,  Matan- 
zas,  Santa  Clara,  Puerto  Principe,  and  Santiago.  Under 
the  military  rule  of  the  island  these  divisions  have  no 
particular  political  significance. 

The  local  designations  for  natural  divisions  of  the  island 
are  Vuelta  Abajo,  Vuelta  Arriba,  Cinco  Villas,  Camaguey, 
and  the  Tierra  Adentro.  The  exact  meaning  of  the  terms 
"  Vuelta  Abajo  "  and  "  Vuelta  Arriba  "  cannot  well  be  inter- 
preted, as  they  are  idiomatic  Spanish  names.  Among  the 
significations  of  the  word  vuelta  is  "  the  turning  of  an  arch  " ; 
and  as  the  city  of  Havana,  relative  to  which  these  terms  are 
applied,  is  at  the  summit  of  an  arch-like  trend  in  the  outline 
of  westeiTL  Cuba,  it  may  be  inferred  that  "  Vuelta  Abajo  " 
signifies  the  downward  or  south  trend  of  the  island  west 
of  Havana,  and  "  Vuelta  Arriba "  the  upward  or  northern 
turn  to  the  east  of  that  city.  "  Vuelta  Abajo  "  is  applied 
to  all  the  island  lying  west  of  Havana,  and  a  portion  of  this 
is  sometimes  called  the  Partido  de  Fuera,  which  includes 
the  part  lying  between  the  meridians  of  Havana  and  San 
Cristobal.  The  Vuelta  Arriba  includes  the  sugar  plain 
eastward  as  far  as  Santa  Clara.     The  areas  contiguous  to 

62 


GEOGKAPmC   SUBDIVISIONS  63 

Havana  as  a  commercial  metropolis  are  included  in  the 
Vuelta  Arriba  and  Vuelta  Abajo,  and  in  the  minds  of  the 
Havanese  and  the  larger  sugar-planters  they  comprise  all 
of  Cuba  worthy  of  commercial  or  political  consideration. 

The  other  popular  divisions,  Cinco  Villas,  Camaguey,  and  "- 
Tierra  Adentro,  are  the  chief  seats  of  the  Cuban  population, 
where  opposition  to  Spanish  rule  has  always  been  greatest ; 
and  though  of  entu'ely  different  topographic  and  economic 
characteristics,  they  rank  equally  with  the  Vuelta  districts 
in  every  respect  except  wealth.  These  constitute  the  real  "^ 
Cuba  of  the  Cubans,  and  will  play  a  most  important  part 
in  the  future  development  of  the  island. 

For  administrative  purposes  the  island  is  divided  into  two 
grand  departments,  known  as  the  Eastern  and  the  Western.  7 
The  Western  Department  is  again  divided  into  the  two 
grand  districts  (gohiernos)  of  Havana  and  Matanzas,  and 
into  the  civil  districts  {tenencias  de  gobierno)  of  Pinar 
del  Rio,  Bahia_Bettda,  San  Cristobal,  Guanajay,  San  An- 
tonio de  los  Banos,  Gruanabacoa,  Santa  Maria  del  Rosario, 
Santiago  de  las  Vegas,  Bejucal,  Gruines,  Jaruco,  Cardenas, 
Colon,  Sagua  la  Grande,  Villa  Clara,  Cienf  uegos,  Trinidad, 
Santo  Espii'itu,  Moron,  and  San  Juan  de  los  Remedios. 
The  Eastern  Department  is  divided  into  the  gi-and  dis- 
tricts of  Santiago  de  Cuba  and  Puerto  Principe,  and  into 
the  civil  districts  of  Nuevitas,  Las  Tunas,  Manzanillo, 
Bayamo,  Jiguani,  Holguin,  Guantanamo,  and  Baracoa.  The 
civil  or  subdistricts  are  again  divided  into  districts  {par- 
tidos),  of  which  there  are  one  hundred  and  sixty-one  in 
the  island.  The  headquarters  {cabeceras)  are  those  towns 
and  cities  which  give  their  names  to  the  districts.  The 
principal  ones  are  Havana,  Puerto  Principe,  Matanzas, 
Santiago  de  Cuba,  Trinidad,  Santo  Espiritu,  Guanabacoa, 
Villa  Clara,  Cienfuegos,  Cardenas,  Bayamo,  and  San  Juan 
de  los  Remedios. 

A  century  before  the  Anglo-Saxon  found  foothold  in  the 
New  World,  Spaniards,  led  by  Velasquez  and  Diego,  the  son 
of  Columbus,  colonized  Cuba  and  built  the  cities  of  Baracoa, 


64  CUBA   AND   POKTO   RICO 

Santiago,  and  Havana.'  The  earlier  centuries  of  coloniza- 
tion were  first  marked  by  a  fruitless  search  for  gold,  little 
of  which  was  found,  except  as  personal  ornaments  of  the 
natives,  who  were  enslaved  and  finally  exterminated. 
Pastoral  pursuits  soon  developed.  Before  the  end  of  a 
century  the  cultivation  of  tobacco,  an  indigenous  product, 
and  cane  imported  from  the  Canaries,  was  begun,  and 
African  slavery  introduced.  During  this  first  century  the 
island  was  also  the  seat  of  great  maritime  activity,  from 
which  the  explorations  of  the  mainland  proceeded.  Morro, 
Punti,  and  other  fortresses,  which  to-day  stand  in  danger 
of  annihilation,  were  begun  before  1600. 

The  second  century  of  the  settlement  of  Cuba  was  marked 
by  increasing  agricultural  development  and  colonization, 
but  was  disturbed  by  the  constant  fear  of  English  buca- 
neers  and  French  and  Dutch  pirates,  who  made  the  coastal 
cities  their  frequent  prey.  During  this  time  the  walls  and 
primitive  fortifications  of  Havana,  Matanzas,  and  other 
cities  interesting  to  the  traveler,  were  built. 

Similar  conditions  continued  during  the  third  centuiy 
of  European  occupation.  These  ended  in  1762  in  the  nota- 
ble capture  of  Havana  by  the  English  under  Lord  Albe- 
marle, who,  assisted  by  American  colonial  troops,  overcame 
the  superior  Spanish  army  and  captured  spoils  amounting 
to  four  million  dollars. 

The  treaty  of  Paris  (1763)  restored  Cuba  to  the  Spanish, 
and  from  that  time  until  1834  the  island  saw  its  greatest 
prosperity.  The  rich  soil  yielded  its  harvests  of  tropical 
products,  and  ships  laden  with  precious  cargoes  sailed 
from  its  hundred  ports.  The  island  itself,  in  those  days  of 
wooden  craft,  became  a  center  of  ship-building.  To  Las 
Casas,  who  arrived  as  captain -general  in  1790,  is  attributed 
the  greater  part  of  this  brilliant  epoch  in  Cuban  history. 

1  Velasquez  founded  many  towns  upon  the  island,  the  first  of  which  was 
Baracoa,  in  1512;  Trinidad,  Santo  Espiritu,  and  Puerto  Principe,  in  1514; 
and  Santiago  de  Cuba  and  the  original  Habana,  on  the  south  side  of  the  island 
near  Batabano,  in  1515. 


PLAZA    DES    ARMAS    AND   CAPTAIN-GENERAL'S    PALACE 


TEMPLETE    MONUMENT,    ERECTED   AT   SITE   OF    FIRST    MASS   SAID    IN    HAVANA 

HAVANA 


GEOGKAPHIC   SUBDIVISIONS  65 

He  promoted  with  indefatigable  perseverance  a  series  of 
public  works,  including  nearly  all  those  now  found  upon 
the  island ;  he  established  botanical  gardens  and  schools  of 
agriculture,  sought  far  and  wide  for  suitable  plants  for 
profitable  culture,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  removed  the 
trammels  imposed  upon  commerce  by  the  old  system  of 
privilege  and  restriction. 

Owing  to  the  wise  administration  of  Las  Casas,  and  its 
influences  which  were  felt  after  his  departure,  Cuba's 
allegiance  to  the  Spanish  crown  was  maintained  during 
the  times  (1794-1820)  that  witnessed  the  loss  to  Spain 
of  her  mainland  colonies  and  Santo  Domingo,  and  the 
terrible  Haitian  revolt  against  the  French.  It  was  this 
loyalty  which  caused  Cuba  to  be  termed  the  "  Ever-faithful 
Island,"  a  loyalty  attested,  in  July,  1808, — when  news 
reached  Havana  that  Napoleon  had  overthrown  the  Span- 
ish dynasty,— by  the  unanimous  and  patriotic  action  of 
the  municipal  corporations,  which  took  oath  to  hold  the 
island  for  the  deposed  sovereign,  and  declared  war  against 
Napoleon. 

This  patriotism  was  but  poorly  rewarded  by  the  mother- 
country  ;  for,  beginning  with  that  very  year,  she  initiated 
the  unwise  policy  of  sending  to  Cuba  as  captains-general 
men  imbued  with  no  motive  other  than  that  of  reaping 
from  its  revenues  private  fortunes  with  which  to  return  to 
Spain.  These  men  were  armed  with  absolute  authority. 
A  few  of  them  were  honorable  and  noble ;  others,  by  their 
acts,  covered  their  names  with  infamy. 

By  the  decree  of  1825,  which  still  constitutes  the  funda- 
mental law  of  Cuba,  the  captains-general  were  armed  with 
a  despotic  authority  such  as  is  known  in  no  other  Christian 
country.  This  enabled  them  to  arrest,  banish,  execute,  or 
otherwise  punish  any  resident  of  the  island  whom  they  sus- 
pected ;  and  later  the  decree  was  supplemented  by  authority 
to  set  aside  the  judgments  of  the  highest  courts.  These  acts 
deprived  the  inhabitants  of  all  political,  civil,  and  religious 
liberty,  and  practically  excluded  them  from  public  office. 


66  CUBA   AND   PORTO   RICO 

The  result  was  an  end  to  domestic  peace,  and  the  initia- 
tion of  uprisings  which  have  continued  at  intervals  since 
the  conspiracy  of  the  "  Black  Eagle  "  in  1829.  The  insur- 
rection of  the  black  population  in  1844,  the  conspiracy  of 
Narciso  Lopez,  and  his  three  landings  from  the  United 
States  in  1849, 1850,  and  1851,  respectively,  and  the  revolu- 
tions of  1868  and  1895,  have  all  resulted  from  wrongs  in- 
flicted by  an  ungrateful  mother- country  upon  a  colony 
that  had  proved  in  a  time  of  general  revolution  the  most 
loyal  of  all  her  dependencies. 

The  period  of  prosperity  initiated  by  Las  Casas  com- 
pletely ended  upon  the  appearance,  in  1836,  of  Captain- 
General  Tagon,  one  of  the  Spanish  officers  who  survived 
defeat  in  the  wars  of  the  South  and  Central  American 
colonies  for  independence.  Soured  by  previous  defeats, 
he  inaugurated  a  system  of  greed  and  violence.  He  has 
been  described  as  "a  true  type  of  the  Spanish  oppressor, 
born  with  a  contempt  for  everything  but  force,  and  hard- 
ened by  the  omnipotence  of  his  Spanish  commission." 

During  his  term  of  office  he  was  as  severe  with  native 
Cubans  as  he  was  lenient  with  old  Spaniards,  who  alone 
were  appointed  to  offices  of  profit  or  honor.^  This  policy 
created  the  breach  between  Cubans  and  Spaniards,  which 
has  increased  with  years. 

"While  this  soldier  was  in  full  power,  news  of  the  con- 
stitution proclaimed  in  Spain  reached  Cuba  (September  27, 
1836).  A  move  was  made  by  the  Cubans  to  secure  their 
just  share  of  the  liberties  accorded  to  Spaniards ;  but  Ta^on 
decreed  that  no  change  should  be  made  without  his  express 

1  Notwithstanding  the  severity  of  Talon's  administration,  he  was  the  only 
captain-general  of  this  century  who  made  public  improvements.  An  English 
writer  says  that,  under  the  governorship  of  the  celebrated  Ta§on,  Havana  soon 
resumed  its  foremost  position,  and  was  almost  entirely  rebuilt  in  stone  and 
masonry,  whereas  hitherto  most  of  the  houses  had  been  of  wood,  thatched  with 
straw.  If  you  ask,  "  Who  built  that  fine  edifice?"  the  answer  is  invariably, 
"Ta9on."  "Yon  theater?"  "Ta^on."  It  is  literally  a  case  of  Tagon  qui,  su 
e  Ta^on  giu.  He  is  the  benevolent  Figaro  of  the  place.  The  wonders  which 
he  performed  in  a  short  time  prove  clearly  that  when  the  island  is  energetically 
governed  it  flourishes  marvelously. 


GEOGRAPHIC   SUBDIVISIONS  67 

orders.  Taxation  grew  from  year  to  year,  and  persecution 
of  the  Creole  Cubans  increased.  The  Spaniards  meanwhile 
profitably  prosecuted  the  slave-trade,  notwithstanding  that 
the  importation  of  Africans  was  forbidden  by  the  law  of 
1820.  In  1848  many  arrests  were  made  on  suspicion  of  a 
plot  among  the  slaves  about  Matanzas  against  the  white 
people.  Officers  of  the  permanent  military  commission 
closely  examined  many  persons ;  but,  as  interrogation  failed 
to  fix  responsibility,  the  prosecution  resorted  to  torture 
and  the  block,  flogging  the  unwilling  witnesses,  who  were 
stretched  head  downward  on  a  ladder.  This  process,  first 
apphed  to  slaves,  soon  extended  to  the  free  colored  people, 
and  then  to  the  whites.  The  commission  executed,  con- 
demned to  hard  labor,  banished,  and  imprisoned  3076  people. 
This  iniquitous  proceeding  was  the  cause  of  the  first  revo- 
lutionary movements  led  by  General  Narciso  Lopez  in  1849, 
of  the  expeditions  of  1850  and  1851,  and  of  Quitman's  ex- 
pedition of  1855. 

•After  1851  a  party — the  forerunner  of  the  present  Au- 
tonomists—sprang up,  desirous  of  coming  to  a  settlement 
to  insure  the  rights  of  the  colony  without  impairing  the 
interests  of  Spain.  After  protracted  efforts  it  succeeded 
in  obtaining  an  inquiiy  at  Madrid  into  the  reforms  needed 
by  Cuba ;  but  the  only  alteration  decreed  was  a  new  system 
of  taxation,  more  oppressive  than  the  former. 

After  the  suppression  of  the  revolts  in  1855  another  brief 
era  of  prosperity  was  inaugurated,  and  continued  until  the 
great  insuiTCction  of  1868,  which  lasted  ten  years.  Spanish 
losses  during  this  decade,  as  reported  at  the  office  at  Madrid, 
were  208,000  men;  Spain's  forces  against  the  insurgents, 
257,000  men;  Cuban  losses,  from  40,000  to  50,000  men. 
The  outlay  on  both  sides  was  $300,000,000,  while  the  value 
of  property  destroyed  amounted  to  an  equal  sum. 

At  the  close  of  this  devastating  war  Cuba  had  almost 
gained  her  freedom;  but,  seduced  by  the  diplomacy  of 
Spain,  the  care-worn  leaders  laid  down  their  arms  under 
promises  of  autonomy  and  self-government  similar  to  those 


68  CUBA   AND    PORTO    RICO 

used  less  effectively  to  quell  the  revolt  of  1895-98.  Hardly- 
had  the  insurgents  returned  to  their  homes  when  Spain, 
unmindful  of  her  promises,  resumed  her  tyrannical 
methods  of  administration  and  of  oppression  of  the  native 
people ;  and  soon  the  latter  had  lost  all  the  prestige  gained 
by  arms.  By  1894,  the  year  before  the  latest  revolution 
began,  the  despotism  of  the  Spanish  officials  had  become 
more  unendurable  than  ever.  During  this  year  of  tran- 
quillity the  writer,  while  visiting  the  island,  witnessed  with 
amazement  the  operations  of  Spain's  colonial  government, 
administered  by  a  horde  of  carpet-bag  officials  upheld  by 
vigorous  military  law,  without  one  thought  for  the  welfare 
of  the  natives  or  the  improvement  of  the  island. 

The  American  who  undertakes  to  investigate  the  history 
of  the  Spanish  government  in  Cuba  inevitably  finds  the 
details  too  revolting  to  be  described.  Greed,  injustice, 
bribery,  and  cruelty  have  been  practised  with  such  fre- 
quency that  volumes  could  be  filled  with  their  horrible  de- 
tails. Above  all  these,  however,  stands  the  fact  of  Spain's 
endeavors  to  wipe  out  by  butchery  and  starvation  the  entire 
native  population.  The  first  of  these  attempts,  practised 
in  former  centuries  upon  the  aborigines,  was  successful. 

In  1844  over  3000  people  were  executed.  During  the 
ten  years'  war  it  is  estimated  that  fully  20,000  people  suf- 
fered a  similar  fate.  The  official  records  show  that  467*2 
people  were  executed  during  the  first  haK  of  that  war. 
Women  were  similarly  treated.  During  the  ten  years' 
war  Captain-General  Valamaseda  wrote:  "Not  a  single 
Cuban  will  remain  on  this  island,  because  we  shoot  all 
those  we  find  in  the  fields,  on  then-  farms,  and  in  every 
hovel.  .  .  .  We  do  not  leave  a  creature  alive  where  we 
pass,  be  it  man  or  animal.  If  we  find  cows,  we  kill  them ; 
if  horses,  ditto ;  if  hogs,  ditto ;  men,  women,  or  children, 
ditto.  As  to  the  houses,  we  bum  them.  So  every  one 
receives  what  he  deserves — the  men  with  bullets,  the 
animals  with  the  bayonet.  The  island  will  remain  a 
desert."    The  intentions  of  this  officer  were  only  foiled  by 


GEOGRAPHIC   SUBDIVISIONS  69 

the  arousal  of  foreign  public  sentiment  against  him,  and 
his  replacement  by  the  humane  General  Campos,  who  tried 
to  restore  peace.  The  third  attempt  at  extermination,  a 
matter  of  present  histoiy,  was  made  by  Weyler,  who  ex- 
pressed sentiments  as  ferocious  as  those  of  Yalamaseda. 
The  first  act  of  the  Spaniards  upon  the  outbreak  of  the 
present  revolution  was  to  arrest,  imprison,  deport,  shoot, 
or  otherwise  punish  every  man  who  was  suspected  of  dis- 
loyalty. This  class  included  all  who  were  suspected  of 
liability  to  become  revolutionary  sympathizers,  such  as 
the  leading  men  of  the  learned  professions,  —  doctors, 
lawyers,  editors,  and  the  faculty  of  the  university, — who 
during  the  past  three  years  have  been  imprisoned  in 
the  dungeons  of  Ceuta,  Africa,  where  730  leading  Cuban 
citizens  were  recently  confined,  or  upon  the  Isle  of 
Pines. 

How  successfully  Weyler's  policy  has  been  partially 
carried  out  can  be  answered  by  the  graves  of  a  fourth 
of  the  population,  which  have  been  recently  filled  with 
starved  or  assassinated  victims  of  his  cruelty.  Had  not 
this  government  raised  its  voice  and  demanded  his  recall, 
the  sole  remnant  of  the  Cuban  people  would  now  have 
consisted  of  the  soldiers  of  Gomez. 

Since  its  discovery  Cuba  has  been  a  crown  colony  of 
Spain,  occupying  a  relation  to  that  country,  so  far  as  the 
absence  of  local  self-government  is  concerned,  comparable 
to  that  which  Alaska  occupies  to  this,  but  governed  by 
military  instead  of  civil  authority.  Some  of  the  Spanish 
islands,  like  the  Canaries,  Balearics,  and,  until  recently, 
Porto  Rico,  are  integral  parts  of  the  mother- country, 
having  equal  rights  with  the  people  of  the  Peninsula. 
Cuba,  however,  has  ever  been  treated  solely  as  a  subordi- 
nate colony.  The  central  and  absolute  authority  of  the 
crown  has  been  represented  by  a  governor,  called  the 
captain-general,  controlling  the  land  and  sea  forces  and 
residing  at  Havana.  His  authority  has  been  backed,  even 
in  times  of  peace,  by  a  Spanish  soldiery  larger  than  the 


70  CUBA   AND   POETO   EICO 

standing  army  of  the  United  States,  and  with  police 
powers  unknown  in  this  country. 

Cuba  has  two  high  courts;  but  the  captain-general  is 
above  either  court,  having  the  right  of  setting  aside  all 
judgments,  as  appears  from  the  royal  decree  of  June  9, 1878, 
defining  his  duties  and  prerogatives.  His  power  not  only 
overrules  decisions  of  all  the  judicial  authorities,  including 
the  justices  of  the  court  of  judicature,  but  also  enables 
him  to  withhold  the  execution  of  any  order  or  resolution 
of  the  home  government  "  whenever  he  may  deem  it  best 
for  the  public  interests." 

During  the  present  century  the  Spanish  crown  has  made 
various  pretenses  of  giving  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  island 
greater  political  privileges ;  but  all  of  these,  down  to  the 
latest  autonomy  scheme,  have  been  the  merest  subterfuges, 
void  of  the  true  essence  of  local  self-government,  with  a 
reservation  by  which  absolute  and  despotic  power  remained 
in  the  hands  of  the  Spanish  captain-general.  Thus  it 
was  that  in  February,  1878,  the  ten  years'  revolution  was 
ended  by  General  Campos.  Under  the  stipulations  of  the 
treaty  the  island  was  allowed  to  be  represented  in  the 
Spanish  Cortes  by  sixteen  senators  and  thirty  deputies; 
but  restrictions  were  so  thrown  around  their  selection  that 
Cubans  were  practically  debarred  from  participating  in 
the  choice  of  these  members,  notwithstanding  that  these 
so-called  representatives  were  utterly  powerless  to  press 
any  Cuban  measure  in  a  Cortes  of  over  nine  hundred 
members,  or  to  put  it  to  a  vote. 

While  the  primary  functions  of  the  government  have 
been  to  attend  to  the  prerogatives  of  the  crown  and  the 
collection  of  revenues,  its  attention  has  been  largely  de- 
voted to  the  personal  enrichment  of  the  officials  through 
misfeasance  and  to  the  prevention  of  the  secession  of  the 
island.  It  has  practically  ignored  the  collection  of  statis- 
tics, the  promotion  of  education,  and  the  establishment  of 
public  works  and  proper  public  sanitation.  Few,  if  any, 
educational  institutions  have  been  erected  at  public  ex- 


GEOGRAPHIC   SUBDIVISIONS  71 

pense,  at  least  since  the  days  of  Tagon ;  no  public  highways 
have  been  constructed,  nor  have  any  improvements  of  a 
public  character  been  made  outside  of  the  city  of  Havana. 
Even  when  the  Cubans  have  undertaken  such  improve- 
ments, they  have  been  heavily  taxed  for  the  benefit  of  the 
Spanish  officials.  The  administration  of  Cuba  is,  and  has 
been  since  the  settlement  of  the  island,  an  absolute  military 
despotism. 

Above  all  the  numerous  edicts,  decrees,  customs,  and  po- 
lice regulations,  the  fundamental  law  of  the  island  is  the 
will  of  the  captain-general,  enforced  by  the  following  decree 
of  May  28,  1825,  which  is  still  in  force,  giving  to  the  cap- 
tain-general "  the  most  ample  and  unbounded  power,  not 
only  to  send  away  from  the  island  any  persons  in  office, 
whatever  be  their  occupation,  rank,  class,  or  condition, 
whose  continuance  therein  your  Excellency  may  deem  in- 
jurious, or  whose  conduct,  public  or  private,  may  alarm 
you,  replacing  them  with  persons  faithful  to  his  Majesty, 
and  deserving  of  all  the  confidence  of  your  Excellency ;  but 
also  to  suspend  the  execution  of  any  order  whatsoever,  or 
any  general  provision  made  concerning  any  branch  of  the 
administration,  as  your  Excellency  may  think  most  suitable 
to  the  royal  service." 

Under  this  law,  which  has  been  utilized  with  terrible 
effect,  misfeasance  has  developed  beyond  description,  and 
freedom  has  been  a  mockery.  Year  after  year  the  least 
liberty  of  thought  or  expression  of  opinion  or  suspicion  of 
liberal  ideas  on  the  part  of  the  individual  or  the  press  has 
resulted  in  imprisonment,  death,  or  deportation.  Further- 
more, the  elsewhere  obsolete  punishment  of  torture  has 
added  horror  to  the  cruelty  of  this  edict. 

The  right  of  free  speech  on  the  part  of  the  individual 
citizen  has  not  only  been  restricted,  but  the  rigorous  press 
law  of  1881  requires  every  editor  or  manager  of  a  paper  to 
send,  duly  signed  by  him,  two  copies  of  each  issue  to  gov- 
ernment headquarters  and  two  other  copies  to  the  district 
attorney  as  soon  as  printed,  that  it  may  be  seen  whether 


72  CUBA   AND   PORTO   EICO 

any  objectionable  remarks  are  contained  therein.  Nearly 
every  publication  in  Cuba  has  been  suspended  at  one  time 
or  another,  and  its  editor  fined,  imprisoned,  or  deported  to 
the  penal  colonies. 

This  military  despotism  has  been  accompanied  by  a  sys- 
tem of  exorbitant  taxation,  such  as  has  never  been  known 
elsewhere  in  the  world,  including  at  times  an  average  of 
forty  per  cent,  on  all  imports,  in  addition  to  taxes  upon 
real  estate,  the  industries,  arts,  professions,  the  slaughtering 
of  meats,  and  a  burdensome  system  of  stamp  taxes,  which 
even  included  in  its  far-reaching  application  the  affixing  of 
an  impost  stamp  upon  every  arrival  at  a  hotel.  The  pro- 
cesses of  possible  direct  taxation  being  exhausted,  the 
government  resorted  to  the  establishment  of  a  most  nefa- 
rious and  contaminating  lottery  system,  which  yielded  a 
profit  of  four  million  dollars  annually. 

The  profits  to  the  active  official  classes,  not  including 
the  fruits  of  bribery,  are  estimated  at  about  $15,000,000 
annually,  besides  Cuba's  contribution  to  pensioners  in 
Spain — a  tidy  sum  for  supporting  the  luxurious  leisure  of 
these  classes,  as  the  following  figures  will  show.  Some  of 
the  official  revenues,  one  half  of  which  are  derived  from 
customs,  the  remainder  from  numerous  species  of  direct 
taxation,  have  been:  1825,  $5,722,198;  1867,  $33,000,000; 
1869,  $52,500,000;  1877,  $60,000,000;  1879,  $54,000,000; 
1884,  $34,269,410;  estimated  revenue  for  1893-94,  $24,- 
440,759;  for  1897-98,  $24,755,760.  The  disposition  of 
the  $34,269,410  of  revenues  raised  by  taxation  in  1884 
shows  clearly  how  it  was  diverted  to  Spanish  profit.  Of 
this  sum,  $12,574,485  was  paid  for  old  military  debts  in- 
curred by  Spain  in  suppressing  Cuban  outbreaks  and 
otherwise  riveting  the  shackles  of  tyranny  upon  the 
Cuban  people;  $5,904,084  for  the  ministry  of  war;  $14,- 
595,096,  or  nearly  one  half  the  revenue,  for  supporting 
Spaniards,  as  follows :  pensions  of  Spanish  officers,  $468,- 
000;  pay  of  retired  Spanish  officers,  $918,500;  salary  of 
captain- general,  $50,000 ;  salaries  of  colonial  officials  (all 


7;  n."  :t^  "TTrw^si 


WATER-FRONT,  HAVANA   BAY 

HAVANA 


GEOGKAPHIC   SUBDIVISIONS  73 

Spaniards),  $10,115,420 ;  church  and  clergy  (all  Spaniards), 
$379,757 ;  military  decorations  (to  Spaniards  only),  $5000 ; 
pay  of  gendarmerie  (all  Spaniards),  $2,537,119 ;  expenses 
of  Spain's  diplomatic  representatives  to  all  American 
countries  except  the  United  States,  $121,300.  This  left 
$1,195,745  for  the  ordinary  administration  of  the  island, 
such  as  education,  public  works,  sanitation,  the  judiciary, 
etc. ;  but  if  any  of  the  sum  was  so  expended,  there  are  no 
visible  monuments  in  evidence  of  the  fact.  There  is  a 
well-grounded  suspicion  that  most  of  this  sum  reached  the 
pockets  of  the  officials.  It  may  be  said  that  in  round 
numbers  $26,500,000  have  been  annually  contributed  by 
Cuba  to  the  profit  of  the  people  of  the  mother-country,  and 
devoted  to  purposes  by  which  the  island  has  been  in  no 
way  benefited. 

In  addition  to  the  legal  taxation,  the  commerce  is  bur- 
dened by  a  system  of  iUegal  taxation  in  the  form  of  bribes, 
which  are  necessary  to  the  securing  of  any  legal  action. 
Little  or  none  of  this  money  was  devoted  to  education, 
science,  public  construction,  harbor  improvements,  high- 
ways, sanitation,  or  other  benevolent  purposes,  such  as 
those  to  which  our  free  government  devotes  its  per-capita 
tax  of  $13.65.  It  is  also  a  remarkable  fact,  notwithstand- 
ing the  extravagant  taxation,  that  only  about  $100,000,000 
have  been  remitted  to  the  mother- country  during  the  past 
century,  most  of  the  revenue  having  been  diverted  to  main- 
tain the  official  classes.  It  is  a  common  assertion  that, 
with  the  exception  of  Martinez  Campos,  no  captain-general 
has  ever  returned  to  Spain  after  a  four  years'  intendancy 
except  as  a  millionaire. 

The  first  generation  of  Spanish-born  immigrants  cried  as 
loudly  in  protestation  against  the  exactions  of  the  mother- 
country  as  do  the  oldest  Creole  families.  Their  commerce 
was  restricted;  their  industrial  development  prohibited; 
their  resources  were  exhausted;  and  their  health,  lives, 
and  liberties  forfeited  to  uphold  the  institutions  of  an  in- 
capable mother-country.    Not  a  single  motive  of  civiliza- 


74  CUBA   AND   PORTO   EICO 

tion  could  be  detected  in  Spain's  treatment  of  this  colony 
during  the  past  century.  Cuba,  under  perpetual  misgov- 
ernment,  has  seen  her  trade  decrease,  her  crops  reduced, 
her  Creoles  deserting  to  the  United  States  and  the  Spanish 
republics,  and  her  taxes  trebled  in  vain,  to  meet  the  ever- 
increasing  expenses  and  floating  debts.  England,  in  the 
wisdom  of  her  government,  has  distributed  colonies 
throughout  the  world,  given  them  the  fullest  limit  of  self- 
government,  preserved  the  patriotism  and  loyalty  of  their 
people,  opened  their  commerce  to  all  nations  upon  equal 
grounds,  and  demanded  of  them  not  one  cent  of  tribute. 
Her  colonial  system  is  the  highest  practical  manifestation 
of  the  civilization  of  the  age.  The  colonial  policy  of  Spain 
toward  Cuba  has  been  the  antithesis  of  this  in  every 
respect. 

Cuba  is  divided  into  two  dioceses,  which  are  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Santiago  de  Cuba,  containing  fifty- five  par- 
ishes, and  the  bishopric  of  Havana,  containing  one  hun- 
dred and  forty-four  parishes.  No  Cuban-born  priests  are 
found  in  any  church  of  importance.  In  the  cathedral 
chapter  at  Havana  there  is  only  one  Cuban,  and  only  two 
natives  have  ever  obtained  any  especial  preferment,  the 
miter  never. 

The  same  oppression  obtained  in  the  church  as  in  the  state, 
the  former  being  used  for  base  ends  in  many  instances, 
and  against  the  protest  of  the  authorities  at  Rome.  While 
nominally  Catholics,  and  so  holding  that  church  responsi- 
ble for  what  they  do,  many  Spaniards  in  and  out  of  Cuba 
are  very  poor  Catholics,  and  they  commit  many  acts  of 
which  the  church  authorities  by  no  means  approve.  For 
example,  the  Cuban  native  who  becomes  a  Eoman  Catholic 
priest  fares  about  as  badly  as  does  the  Protestant  preacher. 

There  is  not  a  parish  on  the  whole  island  that  supports 
an  endowed  school.  Recently  there  was  a  crusade  against 
the  civil  marriage  ceremony.  The  objection  came  because 
of  the  loss  of  fees  to  the  priest.  The  crusade  was  led  by 
the  Spanish-born  priests,  who  charge  Cubans  twice  as  much 


GEOGRAPHIC   SUBDIVISIONS  75 

as  they  charge  for  Spaniards.  Parishes  are  farmed  out  on 
account  of  profits— not  by  the  church,  but  by  the  Span- 
iards. No  priest  gets  these  desirable  parishes  unless  he 
happens  to  have  been  born  in  Spain.  It  is  the  Spanish 
blood  that  contaminates  the  church,  and  not  the  church 
that  does  the  injury.  It  was  partly  the  Spaniards'  acts  in 
introducing  abuses  into  the  church  that  brought  about  the 
latest  insurrection.  The  religious  condition  of  the  island 
is  as  bad  as  the  political. 

Education  is  still  much  neglected.  The  chief  educational 
institutions  are  the  Havana  University,  two  professional 
schools,  with  meteorological  observatories  attached,  one 
agricultural  school,  and  two  seminaries.  There  are  several 
private  as  well  as  public  schools,  aggregating  in  all  seven 
hundred  and  fifty  institutions,  with  some  thirty  thousand 
students  and  scholars. 

The  Havana  University  is  modeled  after  the  Spanish 
universities,  and  its  curriculum  is  chiefly  devoted  to  medi- 
cine, law,  theology,  and  an  obsolete  system  of  philosophy. 
Its  entire  faculty  was  disposed  of  by  imprisonment  and 
banishment  last  year,  while  the  students  have  always  been 
looked  upon  with  a  suspicion  of  sedition.  The  public 
schools  are  decidedly  few,  most  of  the  better  classes  of 
Cubans  patronizing  the  private  institutions. 


CHAPTEil  IX  h 

THE   KESOUKCES    OF   THE   ISLAND  f 

Agricultural  supremacy.  The  cultivation  of  sugar.  The  superior  ad- 
vantages of  Cuba  for  sugar-culture.  The  plantations  described. 
Tobacco-culture.  The  vegas  of  the  Vuelta  Abajo.  Skill  of  Cuban 
tobacco-planters.  Coffee,  fruits,  and  minor  agricultural  products. 
Cattle  and  hve  stock.     Minerals. 

THE  principal  products  of  Cuba  are  agricultural,  and 
consist  of  sugar-cane,  tobacco,  coffee,  bananas,  corn, 
oranges,  and  pines,  in  the  order  named. 

The  raising  of  sugar-cane  overwhelmingly  preponderates, 
and  heretofore  has  been  the  mainstaj''  of  the  island.  The 
Cuban  sugar-lands  are  all  upland  soils,  quite  different  from 
the  lowlands  of  Louisiana,  and  excel  in  fertility  those  of 
all  the  other  West  Indies.  The  cane  requires  to  be  planted 
only  once  in  seven  years,  instead  of  every  year,  as  in  Anti- 
gua. No  fertilizers  are  used.  The  machinery  of  the  estates 
up  to  the  outbreak  of  the  present  revolution  was  the  finest 
and  most  modern  in  the  world.  According  to  statistics 
elsewhere  presented,  this  industry  has  been  almost  de- 
stroyed within  the  last  three  years.  It  originated  in  1523, 
when  a  loan  of  four  thousand  pesetas  to  each  person  wish- 
ing to  engage  in  it  was  made  by  King  Philip  I.  ^,  The 
whole  of  the  vast  central  plain  and  much  of  the  region,  from 
the  Cauto  westward  to  Pinar  del  Rio,  except  where  broken 
by  hills,  is  one  continuous  field  of  cane,  which. in  1892-93 
yielded  1,054,214  tons,  valued  at  $80,000,000,  besides  giv- 

76 


i^s-'l^    , 


/ 


THE  KESOUKCES   OF  THE  ISLAND  77 

ing  employment  to  large  commercial  and  transportation 
interests.  The  sugar-plantations  vary  in  extent  from  on§ 
hundi'ed  to  one  thousand  acres,  and  employ  a;n  average  of 
one  man  to  two  acres. 

These  estates  are  models  in  every  respect,  and  possess 
the  most  scientific  and  recent  inventions  for  the  cultivation 
of  the  cane  and  extraction  of  its  juices  and  their  conversion 
into  the  crystal.  The  houses  and  quarters  are  neatly  built, 
and  attention  is  paid  to  the  esthetic  and  ornamental.  On  the 
Concepcion  estate,  for  instance,  the  quarters  for  the  laborers 
are  built  in  the  form  of  a  quadrangle,  with  a  fountain  in 
the  center,  at  which  bathing  can  be  enjoyed ;  and  there  is  a 
well- organized  hospital  for  taking  care  of  the  sick.  There 
is  a  creche  where  old  women  take  care  of  the  piccaninnies 
of  such  mothers  as  work  in  the  fields.  A  lovely  garden  is 
also  laid  out  in  a  tasteful  manner  with  orange-groves  and 
fragrant  walks.  The  great  centrals,  or  grinding  plants,  are 
enormous  establishments,  which  in  the  grinding  season  are 
busy  centers  of  industry.  Some  of  the  centrals  have  over 
forty  nailes  of  private  railway  leading  from  the  fields  to 
the  mills. 

The  superior  systems  of  handling  cane  and  extracting 
the  juice  have  made  it  possible  to  continue  the  profitable 
cultivation  of  cane-sugar  in  Cuba,  in  face  of  the  recent 
competition  of  beet-sugar,  which  has  so  impoverished  the 
other  islands  of  the  West  Indies.  Furthermore,  the  Cuban 
cane  contains  a  larger  percentage  of  sugar  than  that  of  any 
other  American  country  except  Mexico. 

Cuba,  in  times  of  peace,  produces  about  one  million  tons 
of  cane-sugar — more  than  twice  as  much  as  Java,  the  next 
largest  cane-sugar  country  of  the  world,  and  more  than  five 
times  as  much  as  any  other  cane-sugar  country.  Among 
the  beet-sugar  countries  it  is  surpassed  only  by  Germany, 
with  one  and  one  half  million  tons,  and  is  equaled  only  by 
one  other,  Austria.  It  must  be  regarded  as  a  singular 
state  of  affairs  that,  while  in  all  the  other  West  Indian 
Islands,  and,  in  fact,  in  nearly  all  cane-sugar  countries,  the 


78  CUBA   AND   PORTO   RICO 

industry  is  in  a  desperate  state,  warranting  special  com- 
missioners to  inquire  into  its  illness  and  its  needs,  the 
Cuban  industry  has  gone  ahead  and  prospered  under  a 
government  which  pillaged  it  steadily,  and  in  spite  of 
outrageous  railroad  freights,  bad  shipping  facilities,  the. 
heart-breaking  question  of  European  bounties,  and  dis- 
crimination to  its  detriment  by  American  buyers.  The  rea- 
sons why  it  has  prospered  are  quite  clear.  First,  the  clim.al^ 
and  soil  are  admirably  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  cane ; 
secondly,  the  Spaniards  and  Cubans  have  had  the  courage 
to  centralize  their  sugar-houses  and  go  at  the  business 
individually,  on  a  scale  unequaled  in  any  other  country  on 
the  globe.  Old,  small  places  were  replaced  by  powerful 
factories  equipped  with  the  best  of  modern  machinery, 
narrow-gage  roads  were  built  in  all  directions,  and,  in 
short,  great  sums  were  spent,  and  spent  well.  The  main 
essentials  of  competing  with  the  beet-sugar  countries  were 
understood  and  complied  with,  while  the  other  islands  are 
still  hesitating. 

The  machinery  used  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar  on  a 
large  estate  is  very  extensive.  A  large  central  will  grind 
one  thousand  tons  of  cane  in  twenty-four  hours,  or,  say, 
one  hundred  thousand  tons  in  a  season  of  one  hundred 
days.  A  boiler-capacity  of  twelve  to  fifteen  hundred  horse- 
power is  necessary  to  do  this,  nearly  all  of  which  power  is 
used  for  driving  the  various  pumps  and  engines,  the  evap- 
oration being  performed  by  the  exhaust  steam.  Such  an 
establishment  is  worth  in  Cuba  about  haK  a  million  dollars, 
and  its  annual  output  is  worth  about  the  same  amount. 
Three  or  four  locomotives  and  about  one  hundred  cars  are 
necessary  to  haul  the  cane,  and  about  one  thousand  men 
are  employed  in  the  field  and  the  works.  Besides,  one  to 
two  thousand  head  of  cattle  for  hauling  and  slaughtering 
are  needed.  There  are  many  such  establishments  in  Cuba, 
and  there  is  room  for  more. 

Tobacco,  while  secondary  to  sugar,  is  far  more  profitable 
in  proportion  to  acreage.    This  product  grows  well  in  all^ 


A   CAR-LOAD   OF   SUGAR-CANE,    SANTA   ANNA 


CUTTING   SUGAR-CANE   WITH    MACHETE 

SCENES   IN   CUBA 


THE  EESOUKCES   OF  THE  ISLAND  79 

parts  of  the  island,  but  the  chief  seat  of  its  cultivation  is 
along  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Sierra  de  los  Organos, 
in  Pinar  del  Eio— the  famous  Vuelta  Abajo  region,  which 
produces  the  finest  article  in  the  world.  Good  tobaccos  are 
also  exported  from  Trinidad,  Cienfuegos,  and  Santiago. 

The  best  tobacco-farms  are  known  as  vegas.  These  are 
comprised  in  a  narrow  area  in  the  southwest  part  of  the 
island,  about  eighty  miles  long  by  twenty-one  in  bi^eadth, 
shut  in  on  the  north  by  the  mountains  and  on  the  south- 
west by  the  ocean.  These  vegas  are  generally  located  on 
the  margins  of  rivers,  their  ordinary  size  not  being  more 
than  thirty-three  acres.  About  one  half  of  each  vega  is 
planted  in  platanos  and  vegetable  gardens  for  feeding  the 
laborers.  The  usual  buildings  upon  such  places  are  a 
dwelling-house,  a  drying-house,  a  few  sheds  for  cattle,  and 
perhaps  a  few  small  bohios,  or  huts,  for  the  shelter  of  the 
hands,  who  in  most  cases  number  twenty  or  thirty  to  each 
place,  and  are  the  lower  class  of  whites,  although  some 
negroes  are  employed. 

The  vegas  are  beautifully  kept  places,  and  present  to 
the  eye  a  handsome  and  imposing  sight.  They  are  usually 
fenced  with  deep  stone  walls  and  have  handsome  arched 
gateways,  from  which  avenues  of  royal  palms  lead  up  to 
the  residence,  which  is  a  roomy  house,  with  porches  adapted 
for  comfort  in  this  tropical  climate. 

The  Cuban  tobacco-planters  have  a  wonderful  intuitive 
knowledge  of  the  delicate  processes  necessary  to  growing  the 
tobacco-plant  and  producing  the  desired  results,  such  as 
increasing  its  strength  or  height,  or  regulating  the  quan- 
tity of  foliage,  and  guarding  against  insect  pests.  The 
plant  grows  to  a  height  of  from  six  to  nine  feet.  The 
leaves  are  classified  into  four  kinds,  the  best  of  which  grow 
near  the  top  of  the  plant.  The  poorest  quality,  known  as 
the  injuriadOy  comprises  the  lower  leaves  of  the  stalk. 
Even  this  grade  is  reclassified  into  three  qualities  on  the 
farm.  It  is  not  necessary  to  enter  into  the  full  details  of 
the  classification  of  Cuban  tobacco.     It  is  sufficient  to  state 


80  CUBA   AND  PORTO   EICO 

that  the  excellent  character  which  Havana  cigars  have 
maintained  is  due  largely  to  the  remarkable  care  with  which 
the  different  qualities  of  leaf  are  graded  both  on  the  farm 
and  in  the  factories  of  Havana. 

A  vega  of  average  size  produces  about  9000  pounds  of 
tobacco,  in  the  following  proportions :  about  450  pounds 
of  the  best  quality,  1800  of  the  second,  2250  pounds  of  the 
third,  and  4500  pounds  of  the  injuriado.  This  is  made  up 
into  bales  of  100  pounds,  which  bring  an  average  price  of 
about  $20  per  bale,  although  some  of  the  higher  qualities 
bring  as  much  as  $400  per  bale. 

There  are  dozens  of  large  cigar-factories  in  Havana, 
giving  employment  to  thousands  of  people  of  both  sexes 
and  all  ages.  In  1893,  6,160,000  pounds  of  leaf  tobacco 
and  134,210,000  cigars  were  exported.  Large  exports  of 
baled  tobacco  are  also  made  from  the  east  end  of  the  island, 
most  of  which  is  sent  to  the  United  States. 

Coffee  was  once  extensively  exported,  having  been  intro- 
duced by  the  French  from  Martinique  in  1727;  but  the 
trees  have  been  mostly  cut  down  and  replaced  with  sugar- 
cane, in  consequence  of  the  greater  profitableness  of  that 
product,  or  destroyed  by  revolution.  The  mountain-sides 
and  hill-lands  of  the  east  are  especially  favorable  for  coffee, 
and  a  quality  as  excellent  as  that  of  the  famous  Blue 
Mountain  coffee  of  Jamaica  can  be  readily  grown.  If  the 
island  should  ever  be  properly  developed,  this  will  become 
a  large  and  flourishing  industry.  There  is  still  a  consid- 
erable quantity  of  coffee  grown,  but  it  is  nearly  all  con- 
sumed locally. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  present  revolution  the  growing 
of  bananas  was  a  large  and  important  industry,  chiefly  in 
the  vicinity  of  Nuevitas  and  Baracoa,  at  the  eastern  end  of 
the  island.  Many  beautiful  plantations  of  this  fruit  were 
seen  by  the  writer,  in  1895,  upon  the  summits  of  the  cuchil- 
las  of  the  east  end,  the  products  of  which  were  conveyed 
by  extensive  wire  trolleys  down  the  cliffs  to  the  sea.  Dur- 
ing the  season,  from  February  to  December,  an  average  of 


HUTS   ON    SOLEBAD    ESTATE,    NEAR 
CI  EN FU EGOS 


HORMIGUERA    SUGAR-ESTATE, 
CIENFUEGOS 


PINEAPPLES  BANANAS    NEAR   CIENFUEGOS 

SCENES  IN   CUBA 


THE  RESOURCES   OF   THE  ISLAND  81 

a  ship-load  a  day  was  exported  from  Baracoa.  This  fruit 
was  the  largest  and  finest  of  its  kind  received  in  the  United 
States. 

Captain  John  S.  Hart  of  Philadelphia,  who  had  large 
investments  in  this  business,  and  was  one  of  the  largest 
importers  of  the  fruit  into  the  United  States,  finding  his 
business  destroyed  by  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution, 
promptly  turned  his  ships  into  filibusters,  and,  after  land- 
ing many  cargoes  of  arms  and  ammunition,  was  eventually 
tried  and  convicted  in  a  United  States  court. 

Oranges  of  delicious  flavor  grow  spontaneously  in  all 
parts  of  the  island.  No  attention  has  been  paid  to  their 
culture  for  exportation,  however,  since  the  development  of 
the  Florida  fruit.  Pineapples  are  grown  and  exported  in 
western  Cuba  and  the  Isle  of  Pines.  The  island  will  un- 
doubtedly become  one  of  the  greatest  fruit-growing  coun- 
tries Mahogany,  logwood,  and  fustic  are  also  exported  in 
small  quantities.  About  fifty  thousand  dollars'  worth  was 
exported  from  Santiago  in  1893. 

In  the  provinces  of  Santa  Clara,  Puerto  Principe,  and 
Santiago  the  cattle  industry,  owing  to  the  fertile  grazing- 
lands,  reaches  large  proportions,  the  product  being  large 
'and  fine  animals  of  Spanish  stock.  Horses  are  also  bred 
in  all  parts  of  the  island.  The  Cuban  horse  is  a  stout  pony, 
probably  descended  from  Spanish  stock,  with  the  build  of 
a  cob,  and  a  peculiar  pacing  gait  which  renders  it  exceed- 
ingly easy  to  ride.  Goats  and  sheep  do  not  flourish  in 
Cuba,  the  wool  of  the  latter  changing  into  a  stiff  hair  like 
that  of  the  former.  Poultry  flourishes  everywhere  and  is 
abundant  in  all  markets. 

In  addition  to  the  large  estates  of  the  planters,  the  island 
possesses  many  small  farms  of  less  than  one  hundred  acres, 
devoted  to  fruit,  market-garden  and  dairy  products,  for 
which  there  is  a  local  demand.  In  1895  there  were  over 
one  hundred  thousand  farms,  ranches,  and  plantations, 
valued  at  twenty  million  dollars. 

The  developed  mineral  resources  of  the  island  are  iron 


82  CUBA  AND  PORTO  RICO 

ores,  asphaltura,  manganese,  copper,  and  salt.  A  little  gold 
and  silver  were  mined  in  past  centuries,  but  never  in  large 
quantities.  In  1827  the  silver-mines  of  Santa  Clara  yielded 
one  hundred  and  forty  ounces  to  the  ton,  but  they  were 
soon  worked  out.  There  is  reason  for  believing  that 
neither  silver  nor  gold  will  be  found  in  paying  quantities. 

Iron  ore  has  thus  far  proved  the  chief  metallic  resource 
of  Cuba.  The  iron-mines  are  located  in  the  Sierra.Mn  p.stra»^ 
a  few  miles  east  of  Santiago  de  Cuba,  and  are  of  gi*eat 
importance.  These  are  owned  by  American  companies, 
which  have  invested  extensive  capital  in  opening  them  and 
providing  railways  and  piers  for  the  shipment  of  the  ore. 
The  ores  are  mixed  brown  and  red  hematite,  containing 
from  sixty-five  to  sixty-eight  per  cent,  of  pure  iron,  which 
is  considered  very  rich.  They  occur  in  the  white  lime- 
stone that  incrusts  the  seaward  face  of  the  porphyritic  and 
granitoid  core  of  the  Sierra  Maestra  up  to  a  height  of  twenty- 
five  himdred  feet.  The  principal  producers  are  the  Juragua 
and  the  Spanish- American  companies.  The  ore  is  brought 
down  from  the  mines,  some  fifteen  miles  away,  on  railroad- 
tracks  to  piers  at  the  seaside,  where  it  is  loaded  upon  steam- 
ers and  shipped  to  the  Bethlehem,  Steelton,  and  Sparrow 
Point  companies  of  this  country,  much  of  it  being  used  for 
the  manufacture  of  armor-plate.  Just  before  the  war  broke 
out  trial  shipments  of  ore  had  been  sent  over  to  England, 
and  strong  hopes  were  entertained  of  establishing  an 
extensive  trade  with  that  country.  It  may  interest  the 
reader  to  know  that  Santiago  and  the  iron-mines  of  Jura- 
gua are  the  scene  of  the  popular  novel,  "  Soldiers  of  For- 
tune." 

The  pier  of  the  Juragua  Company  at  Baraqui  cost  two 
hundred  thousand  dollars,  and  has  facilities  for  loading 
two-  to  three-thousand-ton  steamers  with  ore  in  less  than 
ten  hours.  The  production  of  this  company  in  1890  was 
362,068  tons,  amounting  to  one  fourth  of  the  total  importa- 
tion of  iron  ores  into  the  United  States  for  the  same  period. 

Very  rich  deposits  of  manganese  occur  west  of  Santiago, 


THE  EESOUECES   OF   THE  ISLAND  83 

in  the  Sierra  Maestra  range,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Ponupo. 
In  1895  a  party  of  Pennsylvanians  organized  the  Ponupo 
Mining  Company  and  despatched  the  first  ship-load  of  man- 
ganese ore  to  Philadelphia.  They  also  completed  a  short 
railroad  to  connect  with  the  Cabanilla  and  Maroto  Railroad, 
which  gave  them  rail  facilities  to  Santiago  Bay.  The 
mines  had  a  capacity  of  two  hundred  tons  per  day,  and  the 
demand  for  the  ore  from  the  United  States  was  far  beyond 
their  power  to  supply.  These  mines  were  speedily  closed 
by  the  insurgents,  because  they  yielded  a  large  tonnage 
royalty  to  Spain. 

Asphaltum  (chapapote)  of  unusual  richness  occurs  be- 
neath the  waters  of  Cardenas  Bay  and  in  several  other 
parts  of  the  island  in  beds  of  late  Cretaceous  and  early 
Eocene  age. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Cardenas  asphaltum  of  several  grades, 
some  of  superior  quality,  has  long  been  mined  for  exporta- 
tion. The  deposits,  four  in  number,  are  all  submerged. 
One  of  these,  in  the  western  part  of  the  bay,  produces  a 
very  fine  grade  of  practically  pure  asphaltum,  used  in  the 
United  States  for  the  manufacture  of  varnish.  This  has 
been  mined  for  the  past  twenty-five  years  by  mooring  a 
lighter  over  the  shaft,  which  is  from  eighty  to  one  hundred 
and  twenty- five  feet  in  depth  below  the  water  surface, 
varying  with  the  rapidity  with  which  the  asphaltum  is 
removed  and  replenished.  The  asphaltum  is  loosened  by 
dropping  a  long  iron  bar  with  a  pointed  end  from  the 
vessel.  After  a  sufficient  quantity  has  been  detached  a 
common  scoop-net  is  sent  down  and  filled  by  a  naked  diver. 
The  average  quantity  obtained  is  from  one  to  one  and 
one  half  tons  daily,  which  formerly  sold  in  New  York  for 
from  eighty  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  dollars  per 
ton.  The  material  is  very  much  like  cannel-coal  in  appear- 
ance, but  has  a  much  more  brilliant  luster. 

There  are  three  other  mines  in  this  vicinity  which  pro- 
duce a  lower  grade  of  asphaltum,  such  as  is  used  for  pav- 
ing and  roofing  purposes.     The  largest  of  these  is  the 


84  CUBA  AND   POBTO   EICO 

Constancia,  situated  near  Diana  Key,  fifteen  miles  from 
the  city  of  Cardenas.  It  has  been  in  operation  for  more 
than  twenty-five  years,  and  although  probably  twenty 
thousand  tons  have  been  taken  from  it,  it  appears  to  be 
practically  inexhaustible.  Small  vessels  are  moored  over 
the  deposit  and  loaded  by  the  joint  labor  of  their  own 
crews.  The  deposit  lies  twelve  feet  beneath  the  surface  of 
the  bay,  in  an  area  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  in 
circumference,  and  appears  to  be  constantly  renewed. 

Near  Villa  Clara  an  unusually  large  deposit  of  this  min- 
eral occurs,  which  for  forty  years  has  supplied  the  material 
for  making  the  illuminating  gas  of  the  city.  American 
investors  bought  these  mines  the  year  before  the  revolution, 
and  their  investment  up  to  date,  which  would  otherwise 
have  been  profitable,  has  proved  a  total  loss.  The  material 
at  this  locality  is  in  a  massive  bed,  some  twelve  feet  in 
thickness,  and  resembles  lignite.  Similar  outcrops  occur 
between  Villa  Clara  and  Cienfuegos. 

Asphaltum  no  doubt  occurs  in  many  other  localities, 
notably  near  Guanabacoa,  in  Havana  province;  it  has 
frequently  been  mistaken  for  coal,  which  does  not  exist 
upon  the  island. 

Copper  occurs  at  many  places  in  Cuba;  the  writer  has 
seen  it  disseminated  in  rocks  of  many  localities  in  the  east- 
ern portion  of  the  island.  It  was  mined  at  the  village  of 
Cobre,  about  twelve  leagues  north  of  the  city  of  Santiago, 
from  1524  to  1867.  The  mines  of  Cobre  were  once  the 
gi-eatest  copper-producers  in  the  world,  and  their  old  per- 
pendicular shafts  extend  down  for  a  distance  of  seven  hun- 
dred feet.  Formerly  as  much  as  fifty  tons  of  ore  were 
taken  out  each  day,  the  richer  portion  of  which  was  broken 
up  and  shipped  to  Europe,  while  the  poorer  part  was 
smelted  at  the  works,  giving  about  fourteen  per  cent,  of 
the  metal.  The  books  of  the  American  consulate  show 
that  from  1828  to  1840  an  average  of  from  two  to  three 
million  dollars'  worth  of  copper  ore  was  shipped  annually 
to  the  United  States  from  these  mines.     The  extensive 


THE  BESOURCES  OF  THE  ISLAND  85 

plant  of  these  mines,  comprising  a  large  village  and  a 
railway  leading  down  to  Santiago,  is  still  well  preserved, 
but  the  mines  are  now  filled  with  water  and  abandoned. 
It  is  questionable  whether  they  can  ever  be  profitably  re- 
opened, and  even  if  they  should  be,  their  product,  large 
as  it  seemed  in  former  years,  would  be  trivial  in  compari- 
son with  the  enormous  output  of  the  mines  of  the  United 
States.  It  is  generally  believed  that  large  quantities  of 
copper  still  remain  unmined  in  this  locality. 

Salt  occurs  abundantly  along  the  northern  keys.  Natu- 
ral salt-pans  have  been  formed  along  the  margin  of  Cayo 
Romano,  consisting  of  depressions  from  twelve  to  sixteen 
inches  deep,  separated  from  the  sea  by  coral  banks  over 
which  the  waves  wash  in  stormy  weather.  Then  during 
the  hot  season  the  accumulated  sea-waters  are  evaporated, 
leaving  a  perfectly  crystallized  bay  of  white  salt.  These 
natural  pans  of  the  Cayo  Romano  alone  might  supply  far 
more  salt  than  is  needed  for  the  ordinary  consumption  of 
the  Cuban  population. 

Clays  suitable  for  brick  and  roofing-tile  abound  in  regions 
where  the  formations  are  of  a  non- calcareous  character, 
especially  the  eastern  provinces ;  but  as  brick  enters  very 
little  into  Cuban  structures,  these  materials  have  not  been 
extensively  developed. 

The  universal  building-material  is  limestone  and  lime 
products,  such  as  plaster  and  cement,  which  everywhere 
abound.  Silicious  sand  is  rare,  the  building-sand  of 
Havana  being  fine  calcareous  granules,  the  worn  and  com- 
minuted debris  of  sea-shells. 

The  foregoing  practically  constitute  the  known  mineral 
resources  of  Cuba,  and  I  doubt,  from  my  knowledge  of 
the  island,  if  any  great  expectations  of  others  being  discov- 
ered can  be  justified. 


CHAPTER  X 

COMMERCE  AND   TRANSPORTATION 

Harbors,  railways,  highways.  Sources  of  wealth.  The  large  commerce 
of  the  island.  Commercial  value  of  the  island  to  Spain.  Trade  with 
the  United  States. 

PERHAPS  no  country  in  the  world  is  so  blessed  with 
harbors  as  Cuba.  Not  only  are  they  numerous,  but 
many  of  them  are  excellent,  and  afford  convenient  outlets 
for  the  products  of  the  island  and  easy  access  for  oceanic 
and  coastal  transportation.  They  are  so  conveniently 
situated  as  regards  different  portions  of  the  island  that  the 
trade  of  Cuba  may  be  said  literally  to  pass  out  at  a  hun- 
dred gates.  Most  of  the  harbors  are  pouch-shaped  inlets 
indenting  the  rocky  coast,  with  narrow  outlets  pointed  by 
elevated  reef  rock.  The  cause  of  this  peculiar  configura- 
tion is  undoubtedly  the  superior  resistance  of  the  reef  rock 
which  forms  the  coastal  points,  and  the  correspondingly 
softer  nature  of  the  rocks  behind  it,  out  of  which  the  bays 
are  cut.  Others  are  variations  of  this  simple  form,  in  which 
the  cul-de-sac  is  modified  by  many  smaller  indentations. 

The  chief  of  these  harbors  on  the  north  coast,  beginning 
at  the  west,  are  Bahia  Honda,  Cabanas,  Havana,  Matanzas, 
Sagua,  Nuevitas,  Gibara,  Nipe,  and  Baracoa ;  and  Guanta- 
namo,  Santiago  de  Cuba,  Manzanillo,  Trinidad,  and  Cien- 
f  uegos,  on  the  south.    The  last  mentioned  is  said  to  be  one 

86 


COMMERCE  AND   TRANSPOETATION  87 

of  the  finest  harbors  in  the  world.  Notwithstanding  their 
natural  excellence,  so  admirably  adapted  for  anchorage  and 
protection  from  both  storm  and  human  invasion,  they  are 
but  little  improved,  and  are  often  allowed  to  fill  up  with 
refuse  and  sediment. 

The  narrowness  of  the  island  and  the  abundance  of  good 
harbors  make  nearly  all  parts  of  it  convenient  to  maritime 
transportation.  Not  only  Havana,  but  Cabanas,  Cienfue- 
gos,  and  Santiago  are  regularly  visited  by  American, 
French,  and  Spanish  lines  of  steamers,  while  coastal  steam- 
ers circumnavigate  the  island,  touching  at  the  minor  ports, 
which  are  also  sought  by  many  tramp  steamers  and  sail- 
ing-vessels in  search  of  cargoes. 

The  shipping-trade,  both  foreign  and  coastal,  is  exten- 
sive, the  American  tonnage  alone  amounting  to  one  million 
per  annum.  About  twelve  hundred  ocean  vessels,  steam 
and  sail,  annually  clear  from  Havana,  while  the  sugar-crop 
finds  outlets  at  all  the  principal  ports.  Lines  of  steamers 
coast  the  island,  the  north  coast  being  served  from  Havana 
and  the  south  from  Batabano,  the  southern  entrepot  of 
Havana.  The  tonnage  of  Havana  and  eight  other  ports,  for 
1894,  amounted  to  3,538,539  tons,  carried  by  3181  vessels. 

Although  Cuba  is  so  situated  geographically  as  to  com- 
mand the  commerce  of  the  entire  American  Mediterranean, 
trade  and  communication  with  the  adjacent  regions,  other 
than  Mexico,  have  been  neither  cultivated  nor  encour- 
aged. To  reach  any  of  the  adjacent  islands,  such  as 
Jamaica, — each  less  than  one  hundred  miles  distant,— it  is 
usually  necessary  for  the  Cuban  to  proceed  first  to  New 
York  and  thence  to  his  destination.  A  perpetual  quaran- 
tine appears  to  exist  against  the  island  on  the  part  of  all 
the  neighboring  West  Indies,  especially  the  English  islands. 
The  completeness  with  which  Cuba  is  isolated  commercially 
is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  not  even  the  Havana  cigar, 
the  most  far-reaching  of  its  products,  can  be  found  in  any 
of  the  Caribbean  cities,  except  those  to  the  east  in  the  track 
of  European  steamers  plying  to  Havana. 


88  CUBA  AND   PORTO   KICO 

The  public  railways  of  Cuba  aggregate  about  one  thou- 
sand miles,  a  larger  part  of  which  is  comprised  in  the 
United  System  of  Havana,  extending  from  that  city  west 
and  east  through  the  tobacco  and  sugar  districts  of  the 
Vuelta  Arriba  and  Vuelta  Abajo,  and  connecting  it  within 
a  day's  ride  with  the  principal  cities  west  of  Cienfuegos 
and  Sagua  la  Grande.  The  western  terminus  of  this  sys- 
tem is  Pinar  del  Eio,  one  hundred  and  six  miles  from 
Havana;  the  eastern  terminus,  Villa  Clara,  is  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  miles  distant.  One  of  the  lines  of  this 
system  runs  due  south  across  the  island  from  Havana  to 
Batabano,  for  the  purpose  of  making  connections  with  the 
south-coast  steamers  at  that  point.  Other  short  lines  run 
to  Marianao  and  Las  Playas,  eight  miles  west,  and  to  Oua- 
najay. 

There  are  practically  two  parallel  lines  from  Havana  to 
Colon  and  Matanzas.  The  more  northern  is  used  for  through 
passenger  service.  The  southern  line  serves  the  important 
towns  in  the  southern  sugar  district,  such  as  Bejucal,  San 
Felipe,  Guines,  La  Catalina,  La  Union,  and  Corral  Falso, 
Lines  also  extend  southward  from  Matanzas  to  La  Union, 
and  from  Cardenas  to  Murga;  from  Cardenas  to  Yagua 
Ramas ;  from  La  Isabella,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Sagua  la 
Grande,  by  way  of  the  town  of  Sagua  la  Grande  to  Santo 
Domingo  and  Cruces,  and  from  Palmira  to  Cienfuegos. 

Another  east-and-west  system,  nearly  one  hundred  miles 
in  extent,  runs  from  Caibarien  to  Cifuentas,  within  ten 
miles  of  the  Sagua  la  Grande  branch  of  the  United  Sys- 
tem of  Havana.  If  this  gap  were  closed  the  total  east- 
ward extension  of  railways  from  Havana  would  be  nearly 
two  hundred  and  fifty  miles. 

In  the  portion  of  the  island  east  of  a  line  drawn  from 
Sagua  la  Grande  to  Cienfuegos  are  numerous  short,  inde- 
pendent lines  running  from  seaports  to  the  interior.  The 
largest  of  these  is  the  Caibarien  system  above  enumerated, 
which  has  many  small  branches.  On  the  opposite  or  south 
coast  another  short  road  of  less  than  twenty  miles  runs 


1^ 


MORRO   CASTLE    FROM    THE    EAST 


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;N0I(AMA    of    THE    PRADO 

HAVANA 


COMMEKCE  AND   TRANSPORTATION  89 

from  Casilda  through  Trinidad  northward.  East  of  this 
longitude  an  independent  road  twenty-five  miles  long  con- 
nects the  interior  city  of  Sancti  Spiritus  with  Las  Tunas. 
Just  opposite  on  the  north  coast  are  five  short  lines,  two 
of  which  have  ramifying  branches  radiating  out  from  the 
town  of  Yaguajay.  Still  eastward  a  military  line  thirty- 
two  miles  long  runs  north  and  south  across  the  island  along 
the  Moron- Jucara  trocha.  The  next  railway  is  encountered 
fifty  miles  east  of  the  latter,  running  in  an  east  direction 
for  thirty  miles  between  Puerto  Principe  and  the  sea-coast 
near  Nuevitas.  From  the  latter  place  through  the  eastern 
part  of  Puerto  Principe  and  Santiago  provinces  no  railways 
are  found  until  reaching  Santiago  de  Cuba,  on  the  south 
coast,  from  which  three  short  lines  radiate :  one  northwest 
to  the  village  of  Cobre,  ten  miles  distant;  another  due 
north  twenty  miles  to  San  Luis;  and  another  eastward 
along  the  coast  toward  the  Juragua  iron-mines.  The  most 
eastern  railway  of  Cuba  connects  the  city  of  Gruantanamo 
with  the  suburb  of  Jamaica,  six  miles  north,  and  La  Cai- 
manera,  the  seaport,  about  ten  miles  south. 

The  train  service  from  Havana,  so  far  as  the  first-  and  sec- 
ond-class coaches  are  concerned,  is  good,  the  cars  usually 
being  American-built,  and  upholstered  with  wicker  seats, 
in  harmony  with  the  climate,  and  the  officials  attentive  and 
'  accommodating. 

On  the  various  sugar-estates  narrow-gage  roads  are  in 
extensive  use  for  the  handling  of  cane,  and  often  form 
means  of  communication  with  the  interior  in  connection 
with  coasting-steamers  and  the  broad-gage  roads.  These 
narrow-gage  roads  are  of  much  greater  extent  than  might 
be  supposed.  The  large  estate  called  Constancia,  for  in- 
stance, has  more  than  forty  miles  of  such  road,  and  many 
have  more  than  twenty  miles. 

Good  highways  are  both  short  and  few.  It  is  a  bitter 
comment  on  Spanish  rule  to  point  out  that  common  roads 
for  wheeled  vehicles  hardly  exist,  except  in  the  near  vicinity 
of  the  larger  towns.    In  past  centuries  a  few  good  roads 


90  CUBA   AND   POETO   RICO 

of  the  class  called  camino  del  rey  ("the  king's  highway") 
were  established,  leading  from  Havana  into  Pinar  del  Rio, 
and  from  a  few  interior  cities  to  their  entrepots.  A  more 
or  less  continuous  highway  of  this  kind  also  extends 
through  the  interior  from  Havana  to  Santiago.  The 
"royal  road"  is  merely  a  broad  strip  of  country,  some- 
times fenced  by  cactus  and  barbed  wire,  and  passable  on 
horseback  or  by  ox-carts  in  the  dry  season.  Aside  from 
these  roads,  which  were  absolute  necessaries,  the  govern- 
ment has  constructed  but  few  highways  leading  into  the 
country  through  or  around  the  island,  and  hence  inland 
communication  is  much  impeded.  Had  a  more  far-sighted 
policy  of  road-construction  been  undertaken,  such  as  has 
been  carried  out  by  England  in  the  adjacent  island  of 
Jamaica,  Spain  would  have  been  in  less  danger  of  losing 
her  colony,  the  lack  of  good  military  roads  having  been 
one  of  the  factors  which  have  made  possible  the  success  of 
the  present  revolution.  The  city  streets  are  usually  fair, 
and  many  pleasant  suburban  drives  are  possible.  The 
only  time  in  which  hauling  can  be  done  to  any  extent  is 
dui'ing  the  long  dry  season,  when  the  field-roads  made  by 
the  sugar-  and  tobacco-estates  can  be  traversed  by  great 
two-wheeled  carts  with  four  oxen.  Two  days  of  rain  stop 
traffic  in  all  directions.  The  opportunity  for  the  building 
of  common  roads  is  large,  and  in  most  places  there  is  plenty 
of  stone  for  the  pui-pose.  The  roads  cross  rivers,  etc.,  by 
fords  which  are  impassable  soon  after  the  rains  set  in ;  and 
although  the  streams  are  neither  large  nor  very  numerous, 
the  necessity  for  bridges  is  great. 

There  were  about  2810  miles  of  telegi'aph  line  in  1895, 
including  nearly  1000  miles  of  cable,  connecting  the  cities 
of  the  south  coast  and  the  Isle  of  Pines  with  Havana  via 
Batabano. 

Foreign  cables  run  from  Havana  to  Key  West  (two 
lines),  from  Santiago  to  Jamaica,  these  connecting  with  the 
British  cables  to  Bennuda,  Halifax,  and  Europe,  and  from 
Guantanamo  to  Mole  St.  Nicolas,  connecting  with  Porto 


COMMEKCE  AND   TKANSPOKTATION  91 

Rico,  the  Windward  Islands,  and  South  America;  and  to 
New  York  via  Cape  Haitien.  Nearly  all  of  these  cables 
were  cut  by  the  Americans,  as  a  war  measure,  early  in  the 
summer  of  1898,  in  order  to  isolate  the  Spanish  forces  on 
the  island. 

Before  the  latest  war  broke  out,  the  wealth  and  commerce 
of  Cuba  were  derived  from  one  hundred  thousand  ranches, 
farms,  and  plantations,  valued  at  $200,000,000,  which, 
besides  supplying  the  food  necessities  of  the  island,  with 
the  exception  of  salt  meats  and  breadstuffs,  yielded  a  sur- 
plus valued  at  $90,000,000  for  export.  This  consisted 
mainly  in  enormous  products  of  sugar  and  tobacco,  which 
constituted  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  total  exports.  The 
product  of  sugar  in  the  fiscal  year  1892-93  amounted  to 
815,894  tons ;  in  1893-94, 1,054,214  tons ;  in  1894-95, 1,004,- 
264  tons ;  and  in  1895-96,  225,221  tons ;  all  of  which,  except 
30,000  tons  per  annum,  was  exported. 

The  commerce  of  Cuba  is  large  in  proportion  to  the 
population.  It  consists  of  exports  of  raw  material.  The 
imports  are  largely  foods,  machinery,  hardware,  leather 
goods,  wooden  ware,  and  all  kinds  of  manufactured  articles 
used  by  a  people  who  manufacture  nothing. 

The  commerce  of  the  island  is  best  illustrated  by  a  nor- 
mal year.  In  1892  the  exports  were  valued  at  $89,500,000 ; 
the  imports  at  $56,250,000.  The  balance  of  trade  in  favor 
of  the  island  was,  therefore,  $33,250,000.  This  could  be 
maintained  under  ordinary  conditions  of  government,  and 
increased  by  creating  trade  with  adjacent  islands.  Of  the 
exports  $85,000,000  were  classified  as  vegetable,  $3,500,000 
as  mineral,  and  $750,000  as  animal.  The  vegetable  exports 
included  241,300  bales  of  tobacco  (one  bale =110  pounds), 
155,000,000  cigars,  and  1,000,000  tons  of  sugar.  The  minor 
exports  included  under  the  above  heads  were :  rum  (10,000 
pipes),  beeswax,  bananas,  honey,  mahogany  and  other 
woods,  valued  in  all  at  $2,000,000. 

The  essentials  of  this  commerce  are :  (1)  a  large  balance 
of  trade  in  favor  of  the  island ;  (2)  the  preponderating  con- 


92  CUBA  AND   PORTO  RICO 

sumption  of  the  exports  by  the  United  States;  (3)  the 
division^of  iJia  imports  between  the  United  States,  Great 
Britain,  and  Spain  (the  trade  with  the  latter  being  main- 
tained by  discriminative  duties  against  the  other  coun- 
tries); (4)  the  absence  of  trade  with  the  neighboring  re- 
gions—except the  United  States— of  which  the  island  is 
the  natural  commercial  center. 

The  financial  value  of  Cuba  to  Spain  has  been  in  the  ab- 
sorption of  all  the  balance  of  trade  by  Spanish  merchants, 
and  the  personal  profits  derived  by  the  Spanish  civil  and 
military  officials.  Although  Spanish  trade  with  Cuba  has 
been  gradually  declining,  its  value  in  the  past  is  shown  by 
the  fact  that,  in  1854,  Spain's  exports  to  Cuba  exceeded 
those  sent  in  1792  to  all  her  American  colonies,  which  then 
included  nearly  half  the  settled  hemisphere.  The  gain  of 
the  merchants  of  recent  times  included  the  profits  to  the 
shoppers  of  Cadiz  and  Barcelona,  who  sent  annually  to 
Cuba  articles  valued  at  $25,000,000,  and  those  to  the  local 
merchants,  who  absorbed  annually  the  $30,000,000  repre- 
senting the  balance  of  trade  in  Cuba's  favor. 

In  addition  to  the  personal  enrichment  of  intransigent 
Spanish  citizens,  pensioners,  and  officials,  during  the  pres- 
ent century,  Cuba  has  contributed  immense  sums  directly 
to  the  Spanish  treasury.  Over  $5,000,000  was  officially 
given  to  the  Peninsula  during  the  Napoleonic  wars,  be- 
sides personal  contributions  from  the  islanders  of  the  same 
amount.  From  1827  to  1864  an  aggregate  of  $89,000,000 
was  sent  in  annual  instalments,  reaching,  in  1860,  as  high 
as  $29,500,000.  Spain  may  have  spent  these  sums  and 
more  in  the  maintenance  of  her  authoritj^  over  the  island; 
but  this  should  be  charged  to  her  own  account  rather  than 
to  that  of  Cuba.  Since  1867,  little  or  no  money  has  been 
contributed  to  the  royal  treasury ;  but  the  Spaniards  have 
still  continued  individually  to  profit  enormously  by  the 
salary  list  and  compulsory  trade  regulations. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  United  States  consumes  from 
eighty  to  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  entire  exports  of  Cuba ; 


COMMERCE  AND   TRANSPOETATION  93 

in  fact,  nearly  everything  the  island  produces  except  some 
of  the  cigars,  which  are  world-wide  in  their  distribution. 
In  return  for  this  outlay,  however,  Cuba  purchases  only 
one  fourth  of  her  goods  from  this  country,  including  prin- 
cipally necessaries  which  cannot  be  procured  from  Spain. 
Furthermore,  our  trade  with  Cuba  is  restricted  by  the  fact 
that  we  are  the  only  nation  of  commercial  importance 
against  which  the  rates  of  the  maximum  tariff  are  enforced. 
As  these  rates  are  in  some  cases  much  higher  than  the 
conventional  duties  granted  the  second-  and  third-class 
tariffs,  our  products  have  to  that  extent  been  placed  at  a 
disadvantage. 

The  trade  of  the  United  States  with  Cuba,  which  has 
recently  been  summarized  by  Mr.  John  Hyde,  statistician, 
reached  its  high-water  mark  in  1892-93,  when  it  amounted 
to  $102,310,600,  the  ratio  of  imports,  $78,706,506,  to  exports, 
$23,604,094,  being  approximately  as  10  to  3.  This  total 
was  almost  equal  to  that  of  our  entire  Asiatic  trade,  was 
nearly  four  times  that  of  our  trade  with  China  or  Japan, 
and  thirteen  times  that  of  our  trade  with  Russia,  while  it 
even  exceeded  the  grand  total  of  that  with  Austria-Hungary, 
Russia,  Sweden  and  Norway,  Denmark,  Turkey,  Greece, 
Italy,  Switzerland,  and  Portugal  combined.  Nor  does  this 
contrast  derive  its  strength  mainly  from  the  largeness  of 
the  imports.  The  exports  themselves,  products  of  our  own 
country,  were  nearly  twice  as  great  in  point  of  value  as 
our  exports  to  Italy,  over  three  times  as  great  as  those  to 
China  and  Japan  combined,  nearly  six  times  as  great  as 
those  to  Sweden  and  Norway,  and  over  ten  times  as  great 
as  those  to  Russia ;  they  amounted  to  almost  half  as  much 
again  as  our  total  exports  to  Asia,  and  even  exceeded  our 
total  exports  to  South  America,  exclusive  of  Brazil. 

So  much  for  the  aggregate.  What  of  the  different  items 
of  which  it  is  composed !  These  may  best  be  considered  in 
detail  if  presented  in  tabular  form,  and  the  accompanying 
tables  will  accordingly  show  the  principal  exports  to  the 
United  States  from  Cuba  and  the  principal  imports  of 


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COMMEKCE   AND   TRANSPORTATION  95 

domestic  merchandise  from  the  United  States  to  that  island 
for  the  ten  years  ending  June  30,  1897. 

The  principal  article  exported  is  sugar,  the  largest  ex- 
portation of  which  was  in  the  fiscal  year  1893-94,  when 
it  amounted  to  949,778  tons  of  2240  pounds,  or  over 
1,000,000  tons  of  2000  pounds.  This  was  equivalent  to 
thirty  pounds  or  more  per  capita  of  our  population,  and 
constituted  about  one  half  of  our  total  consumption.  The 
next  item  in  importance  is  tobacco,  the  exports  of  which 
reached  their  highest  figures  in  1895-96,  when  they 
amounted  in  point  of  value  to  considerably  more  than 
one  third  of  the  total  value  of  our  own  tobacco-crop.  The 
only  other  class  of  exports  that  calls  for  special  mention 
consists  of  fruit  and  vegetables,  which  had  a  value  in  1892- 
93  of  nearly  $2,500,000. 

The  principal  articles  imported  from  the  United  States 
are,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  table,  meats,  breadstuffs,  and 
manufactured  goods,  the  trade  in  all  of  which  articles  was 
rapidly  assuming  very  large  dimensions  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  insurrection.  Coal,  coke,  and  oils  were  also  imported 
in  considerable  quantities ;  indeed,  so  diversified  were  our 
exports  that  there  is  no  considerable  section  of  the  entire 
country  that  was  not  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  benefited 
by  the  market  for  our  agricultural,  mineral,  and  manufac- 
tured products  that  existed  in  Cuba. 

Between  1893-94  and  1896-97,  however,  our  imports  from 
Cuba  suffered  a  decline  of  75.7  per  cent.,  and  oui*  exports  to 
the  island  a  decline  of  61.7  per  cent.,  the  imports  being  re- 
duced to  less  than  one  fourth  and  the  exports  to  little  more 
than  one  third  of  their  previous  volume.  During  the  first 
year  of  the  insurrection  our  trade  fell  off  over  $30,000,000, 
during  the  second  year  a  further  sum  of  $18,000,000,  and 
during  the  third  year  a  still  further  sum  of  $21,000,000, 
making  a  total  dechne  of  $69,000,000  in  the  annual  value 
of  our  foreign  trade,  and  of  a  branch  of  it,  moreover,  that 
is  carried  almost  entirely  in  American  bottoms. 

Is  it  any  wonder  that,  entirely  aside  from  the  humani- 


96  CUBA  AND   PORTO   RICO 

tarian  considerations  that  have  prompted  the  United  States 
government  to  seek  to  put  an  end  to  the  unfortunate  con- 
ditions so  long  prevailing  in  the  island,  some  justification 
for  such  intervention  should  have  been  found  in  the  well- 
nigh  total  paralysis  of  our  commercial  relations  with  that 
once  extensive  and  profitable  market  ? 


I 


A  CUBAN    PEASANT   HOUSE   OF  THE    BETTER   SORT 


PEASANT   HOLDING  A   WOODEN    PLOW 

SCENES   IN   CUBA 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  PEOPLE   OF   CUBA 

Misconceptions  concerning  the  people  of  Cuba.  Degrees  and  variety  of 
people.  The  five  classes  of  people.  The  Spaniards  and  other  foreign- 
ers. The  white  Cubans.  Effects  of  disenfranchisement  and  conscrip- 
tions. HospitaUty  and  coiirtesy.  Strong  family  attachments.  The 
Cuban  women.  The  laboring  classes.  The  colored  and  black  popula- 
tion.    No  danger  of  negro  supremacy. 

PERHAPS  there  is  no  question  which,  it  is  so  difficult 
to  determine  as  that  of  the  population  of  Cuba.'  It  is 
impossible  to  obtain  accurate  statistics,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  no  reliable  census  has  been  taken  by  the  government 
for  many  decades.  All  figures  which  may  be  presented  are 
intelligent  estimates,  and  gi'eat  variation  is  found  in  those 
given  by  different  authorities. 

The  latest  census  of  Cuba,  published  December  31, 1887, 
gives  the  population  as  follows :  ^ 


PBOVIKCB8. 

ABEA,  8Q. 
KM. 

WHriB. 

COLOBBD. 

TOTAL. 

PER 

CENT.  OF 

COL'D 

BACE. 

DEN- 
SITY. 

Havana 

8,610 
8,486 
14,967 
23,083 
32,341 
35,119 

344,417 
167,160 
143,169 
244,345 
54,232 
157,980 

107,511 
58,731 

116,409 

109,777 
13,557 

114,399 

451,928' 
225,891 
259,578 
354,122 
67,789 
272,379 

24 
26 

45 
31 
20 
42 

52.49 

Pinar  del  Rio 

26.62 

Matanzas .       ... 

17.34 

Santa  Clara 

15.34 

Puerto  Principe 

Santiago  de  Cuba 

2.10 
7.76 

Total 

122,606 

1,111,303 

520,384 

1,631,687 

Av. 
J2 

AvI'. 

13.3i 

1  Published  in  No.  3,  vol.  xi,  of  the  "  Revista  de  Cuba." 
97 


d8 


CUBA  AND   PORTO  EICO 


The  population  of  the  principal  towns  in  1892  has  been 
estimated  as  follows : 


TOWNS. 

POP0LA- 
TION. 

» 

TOWNS. 

POPULA- 
TION. 

'  Havana 

Guanabacoa  * 

Eegla  1    

200,000 
29,790 
11,280 
27,000 
21,770 
20,400 
23,680 

C  Puerto  Principe . . 

n^^^-oi      Cienfuegos 

CentraU  ganto  Espiritu . . . 

[  Trinidad 

4  Santiago 

East. . .  ■   Holguin 

46,640 
27.430 
32,600 

West  s 

Matanzas 

27,640 
71,300 
34,760 

Pinar  del  Rio 

Colon          

Cardenas  

(  Manzanillo 

23,200 

The  population  of  Cuba  previous  to  the  late  insurrection 
was  about  the  same  as  that  of  Vermont,  Virginia,  North 
Carolina,  or  Wisconsin,  and  averaged  about  thirty-six  to  the 
square  mile. 

The  quality  and  character  of  the  inhabitants  of  Cuba 
have  been  so  variously  pictured  during  the  recent  years  of 
conflict  that  the  public  mind  has  been  greatly  confused  on 
this  subject.  The  Spanish  legation  to  the  United  States 
naturally  endeavored  to  present  the  character  of  the  Cuban 
people  in  its  worst  light.  Furthermore,  the  North  Ameri- 
can business  men  and  tourists  who  visit  the  island  are 
prone  to  judge  superficially  its  inhabitants  by  the  lack  of 
outward  appearances  of  energy  which  is  everywhere  found 
in  the  tropics.  I  fear,  therefore,  that  my  estimates  of  the 
Cubans  may  not  be  in  harmony  with  many  current  im- 
pressions, but  I  shall  endeavor  to  judge  them  as  fairly  as 
possible  in  the  light  of  a  broad  experience  with  the  varied 
people  of  all  parts  of  the  Union  and  of  the  other  West 
Indian  Islands  and  Spanish- American  countries. 

Contrary  to  what  has  been  represented,  we  have  found 
them  as  a  class  neither  ignorant  nor  lazy.  The  higher 
classes,  as  in  New  England,  Pennsylvania,  Minnesota,  and 
Louisiana,  are  gentlemen  of  education  and  refinement, 

^  Suburb  of  Havana. 


THE  PEOPLE  OF  CUBA  99 

skilled  in  agriculture,  and  often  learned  in  the  arts  and  pro- 
fessions. Some  dwell  in  picturesque  cities,  the  largest  of 
which,  Havana,  with  the  refinement  and  gaiety  of  a  Euro- 
pean capital,  has  a  population  numerically  equal  to  that 
of  Washington.  Santiago,  the  eastern  city  of  picturesque 
villas,  is  (or  was)  as  populous  as  Atlanta,  Nashville,  Lowell, 
or  Fall  River.  There  are  many  other  cities,  each  with  more 
than  twenty-five  thousand  inhabitants.  The  remainder 
live  upon  over  one  hundred  thousand  farms,  ranches,  and 
plantations. 

The  people  of  Cuba  may  be  classified  into  five  distinct 
groups,  as  follows:  white  Cubans,  black  Cubans,  colored 
Cubans,  Spaniards,  including  officials  and  intransigents,^ 
and  foreigners  other  than  Spanish.  The  white  Cubans  are 
the  owners  of  the  soil;  the  black  and  colored  form  the 
laboring  classes ;  the  Spanish  officials,  the  governing  class ; 
the  Spanish  intransigents,  the  commercial  class ;  while  the 
other  foreigners  are  birds  of  passage  whose  interests  in  the 
island  are  purely  financial. 

It  is  difficult  to  ascertain  or  even  estimate  the  numerical 
proportion  of  these  classes  to  one  another.  The  entire 
foreign  element,  exclusive  of  about  thirty  thousand  Chinese 
males  and  the  army,  probably  does  not  exceed  one  hundred 
thousand  people.  The  civilian  foreigners,  in  most  cases, 
are  estimable  people,  the  better  class  of  whom  are  engaged 
in  banking,  trade,  and  sugar-planting.  They  have  no  other 
interest  in  the  welfare  of  the  country  than  gain  of  wealth, 
and  have  no  intention  of  permanent  residence.  Hence 
they  should  not  be  considered  in  any  manner  as  represen- 
tative of  the  Cuban  people,  although  their  voice  has,  in 
recent  political  events,  almost  drowned  that  of  the  true  in- 

1  To  the  Cubans  the  foreign  Spanish  are  known  as  "intransigents,"  a  local 
word  signifying  transients.  Between  the  two  classes,  governors  and  the  gov- 
erned, owing  to  the  despotism  of  the  former,  a  bitter  hatred  has  existed  since 
1812,  and  has  been  more  strongly  accentuated  since  the  surrender  of  Zanjon, 
in  1878,  when  the  rebellious  Cubans  laid  down  their  arms  under  unfulfilled 
promises  of  autonomy  and  local  self-government,  similar  to  schemes  lately 
presented. 


100  CUBA   AND    PORTO   BIOO 

habitants.  In  addition  to  the  army  of  soldiers,  there  is  a 
vast  horde  of  subordinate  officials,  all  Spaniards,  who  col- 
lect the  customs  and  attend  to  other  minor  executive  duties. 

The  lower  classes  of  the  Spanish  male  population  of 
Havana— porters,  draymen,  and  clerks— are  organized  into 
a  dangerous  and  oftentimes  uncontrollable  military  force, 
known  as  the  Volunteers,  who,  while  never  having  been 
known  to  take  the  field,  are  a  serious  menace  to  the  peace 
of  the  city,  being  feared  equally  by  the  authorities,  over 
whose  heads  they  hold  the  threat  of  mutiny,  and  by  the 
resident  and  unarmed  Cubans,  over  whom  they  hold  the 
threat  of  massacre.  Up  to  date  the  record  of  this  organ- 
ized mob  has  been  a  series  of  horrible  crimes,  such  as 
shooting  down  a  crowd  of  peaceable  citizens  as  they 
emerged  from  the  theater,  firing  into  the  office  and  din- 
ing-room of  a  hotel,  assaulting  the  residences  of  Cuban 
gentlemen,  and  in  1871  forcing  the  authorities  to  execute 
forty-three  medical  students,  all  boys  under  twenty,  be- 
cause one  of  them  had  been  accused  of  scratching  the  glass 
plate  on  a  vault  containing  the  remains  of  a  Volunteer. 
Fifteen  thousand  Volunteers  witnessed  with  exultation  this 
ignoble  execution. 

Although  of  Spanish  blood,  the  Cubans,  through  adap- 
tation to  environment,  have  become  a  different  class  from 
the  people  of  the  mother-country,  just  as  the  American 
stock  has  become  differentiated  from  the  English.  Under 
the  influence  of  their  surroundings,  they  have  developed 
into  a  gentle,  industrious,  and  normally  peaceable  race,  not 
to  be  judged  by  the  combativeness  which  they  have  de- 
veloped under  a  tyranny  such  as  has  never  been  imposed 
upon  any  other  people.  The  better  class  of  Camagueynos,^ 
as  the  natives  of  the  interior  are  fond  of  calling  themselves, 
aside  from  the  customary  number  of  idlers  and  spoiled  sons 
of  wealthy  parents  one  sees  in  Havana,  are  certainly  the 
finest,  the  most  valiant,  and  the  most  independent  men 
of  the  island,  while  the  women  have  the  highest  type  of 

1  From  Camaguey,  the  Cuban  name  of  an  east-central  province. 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   CUBA  101 

beauty.  It  is  their  boast  that  no  Cuban  woman  has  ever 
become  a  prostitute,  and  crime  is  certainly  rare  among 
them. 

While  the  local  customs,  habits,  and  religion  of  these 
people  are  entirely  different  from  ours,  owing  to  race  and 
environment,  they  have  strong  traits  of  civilized  character, 
including  honesty,  family  attachment,  hospitality,  polite- 
ness of  address,  and  a  respect  for  the  golden  rule.  While 
numerically  inferior  to  the  annual  migration  of  Poles, 
Jews,  and  Italians  into  the  eastern  United  States,  against 
which  no  official  voice  is  raised,  they  are  too  far  superior  to 
these  people  to  justify  the  fears  of  those  who  have  been 
prejudiced  by  the  thought  that  they  might  by  some  means 
be  absorbed  into  our  future  population. 

No  cause  in  history  has  been  more  just  than  theirs,  no 
self-sacrificing  heroism  greater,  and  yet  the  world,  during 
all  the  agitation  of  the  past  three  years,  has  known  little 
of  them,  so  completely  have  they  been  cut  off  from  com- 
munication, while  the  little  which  has  been  heard  has  found 
its  outlet  through  the  stronghold  of  their  enemies. 

Notwithstanding  the  disadvantaged  of  disenf ranch ise- 
ment  and  conscription  of  estates  under  which  the  Cubans 
have  labored,  they  have  contributed  many  members  to  the 
learned  professions.  To  educate  their  sons  and  daughters 
in  the  institutions  of  the  United  States,  England,  and 
France  has  always  been  the  highest  ambition  of  the  Creoles 
of  Cuba.  The  influence  of  their  educated  men  is  felt  in 
many  countries,  a  most  distinguished  professor  of  civil 
engineering,  two  leading  civil  engineers  of  our  navy,  and 
the  most  eminent  authority  on  yeUow  fever  in  our  country 
belonging  to  this  class.  Among  the  Cubans  of  the  past 
who  have  distinguished  themselves  in  literature,  science, 
and  art  may  be  mentioned  Heredia,  Ramon,  Zambeau,  the 
famous  medical  scientist,  Teresa  Montes  de  Occa,  an  ad- 
mirable poetess,  and  Gertrudis  Gomez  de  Avellaneda,  an- 
other delightful  lyrist.  Thousands  of  these  people,  driven 
from  their  beloved  island,  have  settled  in  Paris,  London, 


102  CUBA   AND   POETO   RICO 

New  York,  Mexico,  and  the  neigboring  West  Indies,  where 
they  hold  honorable  positions  in  society;  and  even  the 
exiles  of  the  lower  classes,  with  their  superior  agricultural 
arts,  have  been  eagerly  welcomed  in  places  like  Jamaica, 
Mexico,  and  Florida,  which  hope  to  share  with  Cuba  the 
benefits  of  tobacco-culture. 

The  Cubans,  however,  as  a  class,  high  and  low,  are  a 
simple-hearted  people,  hospitable  to  all  strangers,  especially 
Americans.  The  men  of  the  better  classes  are  well  bred 
and  educated,  and  even  the  peasantry  have  a  kindliness  and 
courtesy  of  manner  that  might  put  to  blush  the  boorish 
manners  of  some  of  our  own  people ;  and  while  the  young 
men  of  the  cities  do  not  seem  to  attain  to  a  very  full  size 
or  robust  development,  some  of  the  finest-formed  and  best- 
developed  men,  particularly  on.  the  Isle  of  Pines,  are  to  be 
seen  among  the  peasantry.  Owing  to  the  influence  of  the 
climate  and  also  the  peculiarities  of  their  government, 
which  offers  no  paths  of  ambition  to  the  aspiring  youth,  the 
men  are  generally  listless,  indifferent,  and  lacking  in  the 
energy  peculiar  to  people  farther  north'. 

Hazard  has  correctly  said  that  a  more  kind-hearted, 
hospitable  people  than  the  Cubans,  particularly  to  los 
Americanos^  it  would  be  difficult  to  find.  No  trouble  is 
too  great  for  them  if  you  can  make  them  understand  what 
you  desire.  Many  of  them  speak  English,  more  speak 
French,  which  in  fact  is  the  household  language  of  the 
island,  and  many  of  the  young  men  have  been  educated  in 
the  United  States. 

The  Cuban  woman  to  the  manner  born  is  a  very  fascinat- 
ing creature.  She  is  elegant,  walks  gracefully,  has  pretty 
features,  beautiful  eyes  and  hair,  and  fine  teeth.  Coquettish 
as  a  young  girl,  she  is  generally  both  devoted  and  blame- 
less as  a  wife  and  mother. 

Family  ties  are  stronger  among  the  Cubans  than  with  us, 
and  the  affection  and  pride  of  relationship  please  every 
stranger  who  gains  admission  to  the  households  of  the 
people.    The  marriage  rite  is  encouraged  and  observed  on 


w 


A   CUBAN   TYPE 


THE  PEOPLE   OF   CUBA  103 

/ 

this  island,  and  while  the  men  as  a  class  are  no  more  con- 
tinent than  in  Southern  climates  generally,  the  women,  as 
a  rule,  are  loyal  and  virtuous.  This  respect  for  the  mar- 
riage tie  alone  shows  the  superiority  of  the  Cuban  charac- 
ter over  that  of  the  French  and  English  West  Indian 
colonies,  where,  as  we  will  show,  illegitimate  births  are  the 
rule  and  not  the  exception.  

The  Cubans  are  mostly  found  in  the  provinces  and  pro- 
vincial cities,  especially  in  Pinar  del  Rio  and  the  eastern 
provinces  of  Santa  Clara,  Puerto  Principe,  and  Santiago. 
Seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the  native  population  of  the  isl- 
and is  found  outside  of  the  Spanish  capital  of  Havana, 
which,  being  the  seat  of  an  unwelcome  foreign  despotism, 
is  a  place  where  the  full  expression  of  Cuban  life  and  char- 
acter is  held  in  subjection.  While  the  Havanese  have  had 
the  freest  communication  with  the  United  States  during 
the  last  three  years  of  the  revolution,  Americans  have  had 
little  opportunity  to  hear  from  the  true  white  Cuban 
population. 

The  laboring  classes  on  the  sugar-plantations  are  largely 
negroes  and  Spanish  peasants,  many  of  the  latter  having 
been  introduced  since  the  ten  years'  war  and  the  abolition 
of  slavery.  After  the  emancipation  of  the  negroes  in  1878, 
like  the  Southern  States  and  the  other  West  Indies,  Cuba 
had  to  undergo  a  reorganization  of  its  industrial  system ; 
and  it  may  be  said,  to  its  credit,  that  the  change  was  ac- 
companied by  far  less  distress  and  social  debasement  than 
in  the  other  regions  mentioned.  At  first,  in  the  universal 
fear  that  the  freedmen  would  not  work,  coolies  and  Chinese 
were  imported  in  large  numbers ;  but  the  former  soon  re- 
turned home,  and  the  importation  of  the  latter  did  not  long 
continue,  although  a  large  remnant  of  them  still  remains 
upon  the  island. 

In  addition  to  the  white  creole  population,  thirty-two  per 
cent,  are  black  or  colored— using  the  latter  word  in  its  cor- 
rect signification,  of  a  mixture  of  the  black  and  white  races. 
This  black  population  of  Cuba  has  been  as  little  under- 


104  CUBA   AND   PORTO   EIGO 

stood  in  this  country  as  has  been  the  Creole,  especially  by 
those  who  have  alleged  that  in  case  Cuba  should  gain  her 
freedom  the  island  would  become  a  second  Haiti.  The 
black  and  colored  people  of  the  island,  while  low  as  a  class^ 
are  more  independent  and  manly  in  their  bearing,  if  not  as 
literate,  as  their  brethren  of  the  United  States,  having 
possessed,  even  before  slavery  was  abolished  on  the  island,, 
the  four  rights  of  free  marriage,  of  seeking  a  new  master 
at  their  option,  of  purchasing  their  freedom  by  labor,  and 
of  acquiring  property.  While  the  negro  shares  with  the 
Creole  the  few  local  rights  possessed  by  any  of  the  inhabi- 
tants, his  social  privileges  are  greater  than  here,  although 
a  strong  caste  feeling  exists.  Miscegenation  has  also  pro- 
duced many  mulattos,  but  race  mixture  is  no  more  com- 
mon than  in  this  country. 

The  colored  people  of  Cuba  belong  to  several  distinct 
classes.  The  majority  of  them  are  descendants  of  slaves 
imported  during  the  present  century,  but  a  large  number, 
like  the  negi'oes  of  Colombia  and  the  maroons  of  Jamaica, 
come  from  a  stock  which  accompanied  the  earliest  Spanish 
settlers,  such  as  Estevan,  the  negro,  who,  with  the  two 
white  companions  of  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  first  crossed  the 
United  States  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  California  in 
1528-36.  The  amalgamation  of  this  class  in  the  past  cen- 
tury with  the  Spanish  stock  produced  a  superior  class  of 
free  mulattos  of  the  Antonio  Maceo  type,  unlike  any  people 
in  this  country  with  which  they  can  be  compared.  The 
current  expressions  of  fear  concerning  the  future  relations 
of  this  race  in  Cuba  seem  inexplicable.  The  slaves  of  the 
South  were  never  subjected  to  a  more  abject  servitude  than 
the  free-born  whites  of  Cuba,  for  they  at  least  were  pro- 
tected from  arbitrary  capital  punishment,  imprisonment 
and  deportation  without  form  of  trial,  such  as  all  white 
Cubans  are  still  liable  to. 

Another  virtue  of  the  Cuban  negro  is  that  he  will  work. 
We  italicize  the  masculine  pronoun,  because,  as  we  will 
later  show,  the  male  negro  of  the  other  West  Indies,  ex- 


THE  PEOPLE   OF   CUBA  105 

cept  Porto  Rico,  usually  occupies  the  same  indolent  posi- 
tion in  human  society  as  that  ordinarily  attributed  to  the 
drone  of  the  beehive.  In  Cuba  he  works  the  cane-fields, 
loads  the  ships,  carries  burdens,  and  performs  all  of  the 
harder  tasks  of  manual  labor  not  as  yet  usurped  by 
woman  in  the  United  States,  but  completely  monopolized 
by  her  sex  in  the  other  West  Indies.  I  do  not  mean  to 
say  that  many  of  his  race  are  not  depraved  or  dissipated, 
as  elsewhere,  but  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  the  Cuban 
darky  is  the  equal  as  a  laborer  of  his  brother  in  our 
Southern  States,  and  superior  to  the  darkies  of  the  other 
West  Indian  Islands. 

The  experiences  of  the  past  have  shown  that  there  is  no 
possibility  of  Cuba  becoming  Africanized  without  constant 
renewal  by  immigration.  The  five  hundred  and  twenty 
thousand  people  of  African  descent,  one  half  of  whom  are 
mulattos,  represent  the  diminished  survival  of  over  one 
million  African  slaves  that  have  been  imported.  The  Span- 
iards had  the  utmost  difficulty  in  acclimating  and  estab- 
lishing the  black  man.  While  Jamaica  and  other  West 
Indian  Islands  are  a  most  prolific  negro-breeding  ground, 
the  race  could  not  be  made  to  thrive  in  Cuba. 

Those  persons  who  undertake  to  say  what  the  social  con- 
ditions of  Cuba  would  be  under  independence  should  look 
elsewhere  than  to  Haiti  for  a  comparison.  Even  were  the 
population  of  Cuba  black,  as  it  is  not,  the  colony  of  Jamaica 
would  afford  a  much  better  contrast.  This  island,  only 
about  one  tenth  the  size,  and  composed  of  mountainous 
lands  like  the  least  fertile  portion  of  Cuba,  has  a  population 
wherein  the  blacks  outnumber  the  whites  forty -four  to  one ; 
yet,  under  the  beneficent  influence  of  the  English  colonial 
system,  its  civilization  is  one  of  a  much  higher  scale,  pos- 
sessing highways,  schools,  sanitation,  and  other  public  im- 
provements equal  to  those  of  our  own  country,  and  such 
as  have  never  been  permitted  by  Spain  in  Cuba. 

Another  fact  which  will  stand  against  the  Africanizing 
of  Cuba  is  that  it  is  highly  probable  that  many  of  these  five 


106  CUBA  AND   PORTO  RICO 

hundred  thousand  colored  people  have  been  destroyed  dur- 
ing the  latest  insurrection.  A  large  number  of  them  had 
but  recently  been  released  from  the  bonds  of  slavery,  and 
were  naturally  the  poorer  class,  upon  which  the  hardships 
have  mostly  fallen,  being  generally  the  field-hands  in  the 
sugar  districts  of  Havana,  Matanzas,  and  Santa  Clara, 
where  the  death-rate  of  the  terrible  Weyler  reconcentra- 
miento  has  been  greatest.  Three  hundred  thousand  of  the 
five  hundred  thousand  blacks  belonged  to  these  provinces, 
and  of  this  number  fully  one  half  have  been  starved  to 
death. 

The  population  of  Cuba  has  undergone  great  m)difica- 
tion  since  the  collection  of  the  statistics  given.  Probably 
it  has  been  reduced  to  not  more  than  a  million  inhabitants, 
by  emigration  of  non-combatants,  destruction  in  b4||le, 
official  deportation  of  suspects  and  political  prisoners,  and 
by  the  reconcentration  system.  The  rural  population  of 
the  four  western  provinces  of  Pinar  del  Rio,  Havana, 
Matanzas,  and  Santa  Clara  has  been  largely  obliterated. 
Estimates  of  this  extermination  are  all  more  or  less  con- 
jectural, but  the  Bishop  of  Havana  is  authority  for  the 
statement  that  more  than  four  hundred  thousand  people 
have  been  buried  in  the  consecrated  cemeteries. 


CHAPTER  XII 

CUBAN   CITIES:    HAVANA 

Large  number  of  cities  in  proportion  to  population.  Havana  and  adjacent 
towns,  ^niposing  appearance  from  the  sea,  and  picturesque  location. 
The  bay  and  shipping.  Prevalent  building-material  and  type  of  archi- 
tecture. The  central  plaza.  European  aspect  of  the  city.  The  Prado. 
(Notable  structures.  Tomb  of  Colimibus.  Charitable  institutions. 
Homes  and  private  dwellings.  The  business  streets.  Street-cars  and 
carriages.    Places  of  recreation.    Pinar  del  Rio.    Cabanas  and  Mariel. 

CUBA  has  a  number  of  interesting  cities  and  towns. 
The  principal  of  these  are  Havana,  Matanzas,  Pinar 
del  Rio,  Cardenas,  Puerto  Principe,  Cienfuegos,  Santo  Es- 
piritu,  Trinidad,  Santiago,  Holguin,  and  Manzanillo. 
I  The  number  of  citids  seems  large  in  proportion  to  the 

area  and  general  population,  and  one  wonders,  especially' — ^^^^ 
in  view  of  the  absence  of  industrial  establishments  which 
would  naturally  segregate  population,  why  in  such  a  pic- 
turesque land  so  many  people  dwell  in  towns  where  un- 
sanitary conditions  prevail,  and  the  houses,  especially  of 
the  poor,  are  usually  overcrowded.  There  are  several  rea- 
sons. In  the  first  place,  the  people  are  naturally  sociable 
and  gregarious.  The  prevalent  masoniy  construction  is  also 
expensive,  and  it  is  much  easier  for  the  poor  man  to  oc- 
cupy a  house  already  built,  although  centuries  old,  than  to 
pay  for  the  erection  of  a  new  one.  Furthermore,  from  the 
earliest  days  of  settlement  the  town-dwelling  habit  has  been 

107 


108  CUBA   AND   PORTO   RICO 

the  result  of  defensive  necessity,  and  populations  have 
found,  during  the  many  attacks  both  from  without  and 
within,  that  no  better  place  of  secui'ity  could  be  found  than 
the  thick  walls  of  the  city  houses.  The  ten  years'  insur- 
rection also  resulted  in  destroying  most  of  the  country 
homes  of  Cuba. 

Havana,  which  bears  upon  its  escutcheon,  Llave  del  Nuevo 
MundOj  the  "Key  of  the  New  World,"  as  it  was  named 
by  Diego  Velasquez,  the  first  governor  of  Cuba,  is  the 
political  capital  and  principal  city  of  Cuba.  It  is  a  pictur- 
esque and  beautiful  place,  presenting,  even  in  the  midst 
of  the  most  horrible  tragedy  of  the  century,  the  gay  ap- 
pearance of  a  European  city.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  in  population,  interest,  customs,  and  dominant  politi- 
cal feeling,  the  city  (being  the  seat  of  the  foreign  govern- 
ment which  rules  the  island)  is  thoroughly  Spanish,  and  in 
this  sense  is  not  entirely  representative  of  the  local  customs 
and  sentiments  of  provincial  Cuba.  This  city  was  founded 
early  in  the  sixteenth  century  (about  1519),  nearly  one 
hundred  years  before  the  first  colonization  of  our  sea- 
_^      board,  and  has  interesting  historical  associations. 

The  entrance  to  Havana,  approached  from  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  presents  a  beautiful  spectacle.  A  few  hundred 
yards  offshore  the  characteristic  ultramarine  blue  of  the 
deeper  sea  is  succeeded  by  a  narrow  belt  of  beautiful  pearl- 
green  water  bordering  the  shore  and  overlying  the  shallow 
banks  of  growing  coral  reef.  In  front  stretches  the  beau- 
tiful Cuban  coast  and  a  full  view  of  Havana  and  its 
surroundings.  The  entrance  of  the  harbor  is  a  narrow 
indentation  into  a  straight  shore-line.  To  the  east*  the 
foliage-covered  land,  stretching  toward  Matanzas,  ab- 
ruptly rises  from  one  to  two  hundred  feet;  and  on  the 
point  made  by  the  indentation  of  the  bay  stand  the  pic- 
turesque lighthouse  and  fortifications  of  Morro  Castle, 
whose  flying  pennants  announce  to  the  distant  city  the  ap- 
proach of  vessels.  To  the  right  the  city,  with  the  historic 
fort  of  La  Punta  on  its  extreme  point,  and  lying  on  a  low 


CUBAN   CITIES:    HAVANA  109 

plain,  spreads  out  in  a  beautiful  picture.  The  yellow-col- 
ored houses  with  their  red-tiled  roofs,  mottled  by  green 
trees,  and  the  glaring  white  rocks  and  surf,  make  a  bright 
and  airy  picture  in  the  tropical  sunlight.  The  harbor  is  a 
cjuadrangle  with  its  four  sides  indented  by  land,  so  that  it 
has  the  outline  of  a  dried  hide.  The  upper  left-hand  arm 
of  this,  as  one  looks  out  toward  the  sea,  may  be  imagined 
to  represent  the  long  and  narrow  outlet  to  the  sea ;  the  up- 
per right-hand  limb,  a  shallow  and  sickly  swamp  projecting 
to  the  northeast ;  the  lower  right-hand  limb,  the  embayment, 
or  ensenada,  of  Atares.  Havana's  water-front  borders  the 
western  side,  and  Regla,  the  Brooklyn  of  Havana,  lies 
opposite. 

The  bay  was  once  much  larger  than  at  present,  and  is 
here  and  there  fringed  by  plains  of  old  alluvial  sediment, 
upon  one  of  which  the  city  was  first  built.  This  beautiful 
landlocked  body  of  water  is  alive  with  shipping.  Steamers 
and  war- vessels  of  all  nationalities  ride  at  anchor  in  the 
middle  of  it.  The  masts  forming  a  forest  on  the  eastern 
side  are  those  of  sailing-vessels,  largely  American,  loading 
their  cargoes  of  sugar  at  the  wharves  of  Eegla.  There 
are  many  small  local  sailing-vessels,  while  hundreds  of 
dories  or  feluccas  with  many-coloi-ed  sails  are  constantly 
passing  from  place  to  place,  carrying  passengers  from  city 
to  steamer  or  across  to  the  fortifications.  Large  ferry- 
boats also  cross  between  Havana  and  Regla.  In  the  latter 
city  are  located  most  of  the  sugar  warehouses,  the  bull- 
ring, and  the  principal  railway-station.  For  a  mile  or  more 
between  this  village  and  Morro  Castle  the  precipitous  cliffs 
of  the  east  side  of  the  harbor  are  surmounted  by  fortifica- 
tions, known  as  the  Cabanas,  built  of  white  masonry.  In 
the  southern  end  of  the  bay,  where  it  is  broadest  and  most 
shallow,  rises  a  conical  hill,  Atares  by  name,  which  is  also 
surmounted  by  antique  battlements.  Here  Crittenden  and 
other  Americans  of  the  ill-fated  expedition  of  1851  were 
shot.  The  Havana  side  of  the  harbor  is  bordered  by  a  low 
and  continuous  sea-wall,  with  landing-steps  protected  by 


110  CUBA  AND   PORTO   KICO 

neat  canopies,  and  a  few  steamer-slips,  behind  which  is  a 
handsome  street  parallel  with  the  water-front,  on  which  face 
many  beautiful  buildings  and  shady  parks. 

The  city  proper  is  on  a  low  plain  standing  only  a  few 
feet  above  the  sea,  and  was  once  inclosed  by  a  medieval 
wall.  It  occupies  a  septagonal  peninsula  lying  between  the 
river  Armendaris  on  the  west,  the  sea  on  the  north,  and 
Havana  harbor  on  the  east.  On  the  south  and  west  it  is 
backed  by  an  amphitheater  of  pretty  hills  rising  to  the 
altitude  of  the  Morro  highland  across  the  bay.  On  the 
westernmost  of  these  are  erected  the  conspicuous  fortifica- 
tions of  Castillo  del  Principe,  while  others  are  overrun  by 
suburban  houses  which  have  crept  out  in  those  directions. 

One  of  the  small  feluccas  speedily  conveys  the  traveler 
to  the  Machina  wharf,  where  polite  officials  attend  to  the 
formalities  of  landing.  Neat  victorias  expeditiously  con- 
duct you,  for  the  small  sum  of  twenty  cents,  up  the  narrow, 
cobblestoned,  medieval  business  streets  to  the  hotels  in  the 
center  of  the  city,  the  chief  of  which  is  La  Gran  Hotel  In- 
glaterra.  This  hostelry  is  situated  on  the  beautiful  Plaza 
de  Isabella,  with  trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers,  and  surrounded 
by  handsome,  massive,  two-story  buildings  with  gigantic 
colonnades — suggestive!,  as  a  whole,  of  the  wonderful  white 
city  which  we  built  on  Lake  Michigan  to  commemorate  the 
early  history  in  which  the  discoverers  of  Cuba  played  so 
large  a  part. 

The  building-material  of  Havana  is  a  peculiar  loose- 
textured  conglomerate  of  sea- shell,  of  a  glaring  white  color, 
called  cantera,  somewhat  more  compact  than  the  coquina 
of  St.  Augustine.  This  is  hewn  out  with  axes  or  sawed  into 
gi'eat  blocks,  and  laid  in  massive  courses,  the  surface  of 
which  is  afterward  plastered  or  stuccoed.  This,  in  turn,  is 
variously  colored  by  calcimining.  Sometimes  the  surfaces 
are  roughly  stippled  to  imitate  rubble-stone  work.  The 
prevalent  colors  used  are  yellow,  white,  and  drab,  relieved 
by  darkish  blue,  deep  Egyptian  red,  and  a  vivid  yellow 
ocher.    As  in  Spain  and  Mexico,  the  artisans  make  bold 


CUBAN  CITIES  :    HAVANA  111 

but  pleasing  combinations  and  ornate  effects.  Often,  by 
fresco-shading,  moldings,  cornices,  and  masonry  jointings 
are  imitated.  The  whole  has  a  remarkably  massive  and 
light-colored  effect.  In  the  old  town  the  tall  and  low 
windows  are  protected  by  the  projecting  Moorish  grating 
so  common  to  Spanish  architecture,  which  would  give  the 
houses  a  prison-like  appearance  were  it  not  for  the  bright 
colors  outside  and  in. 

Toward  evening  the  central  plaza  and  adjacent  drives  are 
alive  with  splendid  equipages,  and  horsemen  showing  the 
menage  steps  of  the  fine  Andalusian  chargers;  and  the 
benches  and  colonnades  teem  with  well-dressed  citizens  in 
light  attire  of  duck  and  flannels  and  hats  of  straw,  or  gaily 
uniformed  soldiers,  the  whole  making  a  picturesque  and 
enlivening  scene.  Military  assemblages  of  the  Volunteers 
in  the  morning  and  bands  of  music  at  night  add  to  the 
general  air  of  gaiety. 

The  side  of  the  square  on  which  the  Hotel  Inglaterra  is 
located  is  a  magnificent  avenue  of  unusual  width,  extend- 
ing north  and  south,  known  as  the  Paseo  or  Prado,  leading 
to  the  Gulf  shore,  and  lined  with  imposing  two-storied 
buildings  of  white,  yellow,  and  drab  colors. 

Throughout  the  city,  and  especially  this  portion,  there 
are  many  elaborate  structures,  including  two  theaters  and 
numerous  club-houses.  The  latter  usually  have  superb  as- 
sembly-rooms in  their  second  stories,  and  belong  to  asso- 
ciations representing  the  different  provinces  of  Spain,  so 
that  on  certain  nights  of  the  carnival  the  passing  stranger, 
who  is  always  hospitably  invited  to  view  the  spectacle, 
may  visit  a  dozen  large  balls,  and  see  hundreds  of  well- 
dressed  dancers  at  each  of  them.  The  Havanese  brag  that 
the  Teatro  Ta^on  is  the  largest  in  the  world ;  it  certainly  is 
the  largest  auditorium  south  of  Cincinnati.  Here  the  best 
actors  and  singers  are  seen  and  heard ;  for  no  gi*eat  artists 
who  have  visited  America,  such  as  Nilsson,  Patti,  Salvini, 
Coquelin,  or  Duse,  have  neglected  to  pay  Havana  a  week's 
visit.    Here  one  week  I  witnessed  the  superb  comedy  of 


112  CUBA  AND   POKTO   RICO 

Coquelin  and  Hading.  The  audience  was  brilliant  with  all 
that  dress,  jewels,  and  fair  women  could  naake  it.  One 
could  readily  believe  himself  in  Paris.  The  next  night  was 
the  closing  Sunday  of  the  carnival  season.  The  fashiona- 
ble world,  which  had  filled  the  Ta§on  the  week  before,  trans- 
ferred its  presence  to  the  grand  balls  in  the  various  club- 
houses, and  the  Tagon  was  filled  by  a  frightful  canaille,  that 
indulged  in  the  most  licentious  orgies.  Negresses  and  mu- 
lattos from  the  smallpox  and  fever-laden  slums,  drunken 
sailors  of  all  nations,  and  the  scum  of  the  male  population 
of  the  city  held  wild  revelry. 

Other  notable  buildings  are  the  large  markets,  the  opera- 
house,  the  captain-general's  palace,  the  hospitals,  the  uni- 
versity, the  city  prison,  and  several  churches,  including 
the  cathedral.  The  many  immense  cigar-factories  are  by 
no  means  unattractive  features.  These  are  large  buildings, 
resembling  the  factories  of  the  village  towns  of  New  Eng- 
land, although  more  ornamental  in  architecture  and  sur- 
roundings. 

The  churches  of  Havana  are  not  particularly  numerous. 
The  largest  is  the  Merced,  a  cathedral  in  the  rococo  style, 
with  handsome  marble  altars,  mahogany  and  dark-colored 
marble  furnishings,  and  a  superb  choir.  It  is  sur- 
mounted by  a  large  central  dome  and  two  short  towers. 
This  edifice  is  principally  interesting  because  of  the  fact 
that  it  is  one  of  the  alleged  resting-places  of  Colimibus. 
The  disputed  remains  are  in  a  small  urn  deposited  in  a 
niche  in  the  west  wall  of  the  chancel,  and  sealed  up  with  a 
marble  slab  surmounted  by  an  excellent  bust  wreathed  with 
laurel.    The  inscription  is  as  follows : 

O  Restos  e  Ymagen  del  grande  Colon  ! 
Mil  ciglos  durad  guardados  en  la  Vrna, 
Y  en  la  remembransa  de  nuestra  Nacion.^ 

^  The  literal  interpretation  of  this  poorly  constructed  inscription  is : 

Oh,  rest  thou,  image  of  the  great  Colon ! 
Thousand  centuries  remain  guarded  in  the  um, 
And  in  the  remembrance  of  our  nation. 


/  w^  mi  mi 


OLD    CHURCH     USED    AS    CUSTOM-HOUSE 


THE   CATHEDRAL 

HAVANA 


CUBAN   CITIES:    HAVANA  113 

The  inhabitants  of  Santo  Domingo,  however,  as  will  be 
shown  in  our  descriptions  of  that  island,  are  as  positive  as 
the  Havanese  that  they  still  retain  the  custody  of  Colum- 
bus's body,  and  allege  that  the  remains  in  the  cathedral  of 
Havana,  to  which  so  many  pilgrimages  have  been  made,  are 
not  genuine. 

There  are  many  institutions  of  learning  in  the  city,  the 
principal  of  which  are  the  University  of  Havana  and  the 
large  Jesuit  College  de  Belen  for  boys.  The  latter  is  an 
observatory,  where  most  of  the  important  astronomic  and 
climatologic  data  concerning  Cuba  have  been  collected. 
It  also  possesses  a  museum,  in  which  can  be  seen  preserved 
the  fauna  of  the  island,  principally  land-snails,  birds,  and 
many  rare  botanical  specimens.  The  library  is  especially 
rich  in  old  volumes,  drawings,  and  prints  illustrating 
Cuban  life  and  scenery  from  the  sixteenth  century  down 
to  our  own  times. 

There  are  numerous  charitable  and  benevolent  institu- 
tions in  the  capital.  Among  these  are  the  Casa  de  Bene- 
ficencia,  founded  by  Las  Casas  as  an  asylum  for  infants  and 
the  aged ;  hospitals  for  the  sick  of  all  classes ;  and  an  im- 
mense lazaretto  situated  in  the  western  part  of  the  city,  in 
which  six  nuns  and  two  priests  attend  to  over  a  hundred 
leprous  interns,  besides  treating  dozens  of  unfortunate 
beings  afflicted  with  this  dread  disease  who  call  daily  at  its 
dispensary.  A  handsome  and  apparently  well-arranged 
hospital  for  the  insane  is  maintained  a  few  miles  south  of 
Havana,  on  the  road -to  Batabano. 

Of  the  institutions  of  Havana  it  may  be  said  that  so  far 
as  the  benevolent  and  charitable  impulses  that  support 
them  are  concerned,  they  are  commendable ;  but  the  whole 
system  is  utterly  behind  the  age,  inasmuch  as  it  is  not 
based  upon  any  thought  of  the  preservation  of  public 
health,  but  is  solely  for  the  alleviation  of  individual  cases. 
For  instance,  there  is  no  isolation  of  those  affected  with 
contagious  diseases ;  leprosy,  smallpox,  yellow  fever,  beri- 
beri, and  other  diseases  are  allowed  to  exist  in  private 


114  CUBA  AND  POKTO  KICO 

residences  without  consideration  of  danger  to  adjacent 
neighbors  or  the  community  at  large.  Furthermore,  de- 
pendents of  all  kinds,  lepers,  blind,  aged,  deaf,  or  lame,  are 
allowed  to  roam  as  long  as  they  can  beg  their  way. 

The  houses  of  the  wealthy  are  scattered  through  every 
part  of  the  city.  Some  of  the  finer  mansions  are  very 
handsome,  being  built  in  the  classic  style.  Even  in  solid  city 
blocks  these  always  have  an  inner  courtyard,  or  patio^  sur- 
rounded by  tall  stuccoed  colum  ns,  and  ornamented  with  beau- 
tiful flowering  plants  around  a  central  fountain.  Song 
and  ornamental  birds  hang  in  cages.  In  the  suburbs, 
where  the  houses  are  not  in  blocks,  they  are  usually  sur- 
rounded by  beautiful  yards  and  gardens.  It  has  been  said 
that  the  handsomest  street  in  Havana  is  the  Cerro,  a  long 
thoroughfare  running  up  a  hill  toward  Jesus  del  Monte,  a 
southern  suburb.  This  is  bordered  on  either  side  by 
enormous  old  villas  in  the  midst  of  magnificent  gardens. 
The  finest  of  these  mansions  is  built  of  white  marble  in  the 
usual  classic  style.  In  the  midst  of  a  perfect  forest  of 
cocoa-palms  stands  the  former  summer  villa  of  the  bishops 
of  Havana,  now  a  private  residence.  Then  one  after  an- 
other follow  the  handsome  dwellings  of  the  Havanese 
sangre  azul,  of  the  Marques  dos  Hermanos,  of  the  Conde 
Penalver,  of  the  Marquesa  de  Rio  Palma,  etc.  The  orna- 
mental cacti  in  these  villa  gardens  are  of  immense  size  and 
shape.  They  are  principally  of  the  Cereus  kind.  The 
door-steps  of  nearly  all  these  residences  are  surmounted  by 
recumbent  lions,  indicative  of  the  aristocracy  of  their  in- 
habitants. At  one  residence  the  lions  were  lying  overturned 
in  the  back  yard,  instead  of  upright  at  the  front  entrance. 
Upon  inquiry  as  to  the  cause  of  this,  I  learned  that  the 
possessor  thereof  had  become  incensed  because  his  neigh- 
bor, a  parvenu  of  low  origin,  upon  whom  a  title  of  nobility 
had  lately  been  bestowed,  had  recently  set  up  lions  on 
the  adjacent  door-steps.  West  of  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Armendaris  is  the  handsome  seaside  suburb  of  La  Mira- 
nao,  where  the  wealthier  residents  have  constructed  taste- 


CUBAN   CITIES:    HAVANA  115 

fill  cottages  surrounded  by  gardens,  which  suggest  some  of 
our  summer  seaside  resorts. 

The  principal  business  streets  are  known  as  the  Calle 
Obispo  and  Calle  O'Reilly.  The  latter  runs  from  the 
governor's  palace  east,  and  passes  through  the  central 
park  to  the  outer  walls  of  the  city.  It  is  a  crooked  thor- 
oughfare, built  centuries  ago,  with  sidewalks  so  narrow 
that  one  must  step  into  the  gutter  to  pass  an  opposing 
pedestrian.  Many  of  the  houses  of  this  and  similar  narrow 
lanes  and  alleys  of  the  old  part  of  the  town  are  but  one 
story  high;  but  one  story  in  Cuba  is  so  lofty  that  it  is 
equivalent  to  two  of  our  country.  These  streets  are 
crowded  during  the  early  hours  with  vehicles  and  people 
engaged  in  shopping  or  commercial  pursuits,  and  sailors 
of  all  nations,  for  the  foreign  trade  of  Havana  amounts  to 
fifty  million  dollars  yearly. 

The  wholesale  houses  are  overflowing  with  plantation 
supplies,  while  the  shops  are  plentifully  supplied  with 
European  and  native  goods.  Only  a  few  years  ago  the 
jewelers'  and  goldsmiths'  shops  were  renowned  throughout 
the  western  world;  but  now,  unfortunately,  they  are 
entirely  ruined.  Even  in  1878,  when  the  shoe  first  began 
to  pinch  in  Cuba,  many  fine  jewels,  and  some  beautiful 
specimens  of  old  Spanish  silver,  Louis  XV  fans,  snuff- 
boxes^ and  bric-a-brac  of  all  kinds,  were  offered  for  sale. 
Often  a  negress  would  come  to  the  hotel  bearing  a  coffer 
fuU  of  things  for  inspection.  The  mistress  who  sent  the 
good  woman  must  have  had  implicit  trust  in  her  servant, 
who  frequently  sold  her  wares  for  very  considerable  sums. 
Few  of  the  Havanese  nobility  and  rich  planters  have  any- 
thing left  which  is  worth  selling  nowadays ;  but  only  a  few 
years  ago  Havana  was  a  happy  hunting-ground  for  bargain- 
seekers. 

Street-railways  with  cars  drawn  by  mules  radiate  in  sev- 
eral directions  from  the  Paseo.  One  of  the  principal  lines 
proceeds  north  down  the  Paseo  to  the  Punta  battery  and 
baths  on  the  Gulf  shore,  and  then  westward  for  several 


116  CUBA   AND   PORTO   EICO 

miles  along  the  sea-front,  past  the  hospitals,  to  the  little 
village  of  Chorerra,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Almendares.  At 
this  place  stands  an  interesting  old  ruin  known  as  the 
Bucaneers'  Fort,  which  was  built  in  the  earlier  centuries. 
The  place  is  also  of  interest  inasmuch  as  it  was  the  site  of 
the  first  settlement  of  the  present  city  of  Havana  in  1819. 
Another  goes  south  for  several  miles,  past  the  aristocratic 
residences  of  Cerro  Street,  to  the  little  suburb  of  Jesus  del 
Monte. 

For  its  size  Havana  is  exceptionally  well  supplied  with 
public  and  private  carriages.  An  excellent  victoria  can  be 
hired  for  two  pesetas  (forty  cents)  an  hour.  To  avoid  ex- 
tortion from  the  cab- drivers,  the  lamp-posts  are  painted 
various  colors — red  for  the  central  district,  blue  for  the 
second  circle,  and  gi'een  for  the  outer.  Thus  the  traveler 
at  once  becomes  aware  when  he  gets  beyond  the  radius, 
and  pays  accordingly.  Trouble  with  the  Havanese  hack- 
coachman,  usually  a  colored  naan  and  very  civil,  is  of  the 
rarest  occurrence.  The  picturesque  volante^  once  as  essen- 
tially Cuban  as  the  gondola  is  Venetian,  has  entirely  dis- 
appeared from  the  streets  of  the  capital;  victorias  and 
landaus  have  usurped  the  place  of  these  old-style  coaches, 
excepting  in  the  country,  where  they  are  often  to  be  met 
with  on  the  highroads. 

Of  Havana  society,  like  all  passing  strangers  who  have 
not  penetrated  its  inner  circles,  I  can  say  but  little.  Su- 
perficially it  resembles  that  of  most  of  the  cities  of  south- 
ern Europe,  and  is  principally  devoted  to  innocent  enjoy- 
ment. The  gentlemen  have  their  clubs,  which  are  large 
and  well  adapted  to  the  climate ;  the  ladies  find  occupation 
in  their  benevolent  and  charitable  organizations.  All  are 
fond  of  dress  and  driving.  The  styles  among  the  gentle 
sex  are  mainly  Parisian,  while  the  men  assume  flannels, 
duck,  and  linen  in  the  daytime,  with  the  universal  dress- 
suit  at  evening.  The  city  in  winter  is  the  resort  not  only 
of  a  large  foreign  population,  including  tourists  and  busi- 
ness men,  but  of  the  principal  planters  of  the  sugar  and 


CUBAN   CITIES:    HAVANA  117 

tobacco  districts.  These,  with  the  large  set  of  military- 
officials,  add  interest  to  the  social  picture. 

AmoDg  the  lower  classes  there  is  a  large  industrial  popu- 
lation, li\dng  in  densely  crowded  houses,  and  employed 
principally  in  the  tobacco-factories.  There  are  also  manu- 
factories of  sweetmeats,  candles,  carriages,  soap,  perfu- 
mery, and  glycerin,  and  breweries,  rum-distilleries,  tanner- 
ies, and  gas-works. 

Among  so  pleasure-loving  a  people  as  the  Cubans, 
public  amusements  hold  a  far  more  prominent  place  than 
they  do  in  the  United  States,  with,  perhaps,  the  sole  excep- 
tion of  New  Orleans,  and  the  carnival  at  Havana  was  at 
one  time  the  most  brilliant  in  the  Americas.  For  many 
years  its  glories  have  been  declining,  and  during  the  last 
few  decades  the  upper  and  middle  classes  have  taken  little 
part  in  the  outdoor  festivities. 

There  are  many  places  of  recreo  adjacent  to  Havana, 
including  the  sea-shore  and  the  pretty  villages,  such  as 
Guines,  Gruanabacoa,  Marianao,  and  Puentes  Grrandes. 
Excursions  to  places  of  interest  can  be  taken  within  a  few 
hours'  ride  from  the  city;  all  the  country  within  railway 
communication  can  be  reached  in  a  day's  time.  Two 
hours  will  convey  one  southward  by  rail  to  Batabano,  or 
westward  to  the  tobacco-fields  of  Pinar  del  Eio,  or  east- 
ward through  charming  hills  to  Matanzas.  The  miserable 
village  of  Batabano,  twenty-five  miles  distant,  is  only 
interesting  as  an  entrepot  for  the  city.  Here  the  coastal 
cable  from  Santiago  touches,  and  from  this  point  radiate 
various  lines  of  steamers  along  the  coast  and  to  the  Isle  of 
Pines. 

All  in  all,  Havana  is  a  handsome,  delightful,  and  charm- 
ing city,  where  one  capable  of  remembering  that  all  the 
world  is  not  alike  will  find  novel  experiences  and  interest- 
ing entertainment  on  every  side.  In  spite  of  the  frightful 
mortality  of  Havana,  the  better  parts  of  the  city  are,  to 
outward  appearance,  clean  and  beautiful.  Prisoners  sweep 
the  paved  streets  each  morning,  and  the  houses  are  aU  kept 


118  CUBA  AND   PORTO  RICO 

neatly  freshened  with  color.  Outside  of  the  busy  thor- 
oughfares^ and  marts  or  the  crowded  homes  of  the  poor, 
which  are  no  worse  than  in  the  down -town  streets  of  New 
York,  one  rarely  meets  a  foul  smell.  The  unsanitary  con- 
dition of  the  city  is  largely  due  to  causes  which  are  hidden 
from  public  sight,  such  as  the  crowding  of  tenements,  the 
miserable  cesspools,  and  the  imperfect  sewerage,  which 
befouls  the  beautiful  harbor.  The  city,  we  are  informed 
by  trustworthy  engineers  and  the  highest  medical  authori- 
ties of  our  country  who  have  studied  the  yellow-fever 
question  in  Havana,  could  be  made  one  of  the  most  health- 
ful in  the  world.  Until  recently  it  was  badly  supplied  with 
water,  and  its  sewerage  is  still  abominable.  In  1895  a 
modern  system  of  waterworks  was  installed  by  New  York 
engineers,  who  also  prepared  plans  for  the  solution  of  the 
sewerage  problem.  The  city  is  well  policed.  Numerous 
patrolmen  dressed  in  handsome  military  uniforms  guard 
the  various  corners,  while  gendarmes  mounted  on  fine 
horses  are  stationed  at  various  places. 

West  of  Havana,  in  the  Vuelta  Abajo  district  of  Pinar 
del  Rio  province,  there  are  (or  were)  many  pretty  towns.  Of 
these,  Cabanas,  Mariel,  and  Bahia  Honda  are  on  the  northern 
sea-coast,  and  have  small  landlocked  harbors  which  to  a 
certain  extent  are  miniature  duplicates  of  Havana  Bay. 
These  towns  are  very  prettily  located.  The  chief  places 
in  the  interior  are  Guanajay,  Pinar  del  Rio,  and  San  Cris- 
tobal. Gruanajay  is  situated  on  the  principal  highway  that 
runs  through  Vuelta  Abajo,  and  had  a  population  of  about 
four  thousand  inhabitants.  It  is  a  fine  type  of  the  smaller 
Cuban  towns,  possessing  a  pretty  public  square,  around 
which  are  built  some  very  imposing  houses.  The  town  lies 
in  the  heart  of  a  beautiful  country,  about  twelve  miles  from 
the  north  shore,  between  which  and  it  are  a  number  of 
large  sugar-estates  situated  in  a  rolling  country. 

San  Antonio  de  los  Banos  was  a  small  and  pretty  town, 
with  well-built  houses  and  about  five  thousand  inhabitants, 
twenty-three  miles  from  Havana,  on  the  road  to  Guanajay. 


CUBAN   CITIES:    HAVANA  119 

It  had  mineral  springs  and  baths,  and  was  frequented  as  a 
summer  resort  by  the  people  of  Havana. 

Pinar  del  Rio  and  San  Cristobal  are  the  chief  inland 
towns  of  the  Vuelta  Abajo.  Both  are  pleasant  places, 
surrounded  by  picturesque  scenery,  and  principally  in- 
habited by  the  tobacco-planters. 


2>^ 


CHAPTER  XIII 

OTHER   CUBAN   CITIES 

Matanzas.  Beauty  of  the  surrounding  country.  Cardenas.  Sagua  la 
Grande.  Cienfuegos.  Trinidad-  Santa  Clara.  Puerto  Principe,  Bay- 
amo,  and  Holguin.  ManzanUlo.  Santiago  de  Cuba.  Guantanamo. 
Baracoa. 

THE  second  city  and  seaport  of  central  Cuba  is  Matan- 
zas, about  sixty  miles  east  of  Havana.  It  was  founded 
in  1693,  and  is  the  chief  outlet  for  that  part  of  the  sugar 
region  which  stretches  south  and  east  toward  Cardenas, 
and  which  includes  the  most  fertile  lands  in  Cuba.  The 
harbor  is  large  and  capacious,  but,  like  many  others,  through 
the  laisser-f  aire  policy  of  the  Spanish  government,  has  been 
allowed  to  fill  with  sediment,  and  hence  the  larger  steamers 
are  obliged  to  load  in  the  roadstead. 

The  city  itself  is  handsomely  situated  on  the  south  and 
east  side  of  the  harbor,  on  a  lower  plane,  backed  on  all  sides, 
except  toward  the  sea,  by  a  noble  terrace  of  wooded  hills, 
out  of  which  two  beautiful  streams,  the  Yumuri  and  San 
Juan,  flow  into  the  bay.  It  is  divided  into  three  parts  by 
rivers,  the  principal  business  part  occupying  the  central 
portion  and  extending  west  one  and  a  half  miles.  The 
chief  warehouses,  distilleries,  and  sugar-refineries  are  on 
the  south  of  the  river  San  Juan,  easily  accessible  to  rail- 
roads and  lighters.  The  population  is  49,384,  and  that  of 
Matanzas  pro\dnce  271,000,  according  to  the  1893  census. 

120 


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OTHEE   CUBAN   CITIES  121 

The  principal  industries  are  rum-distilling,  sugar-refining, 
and  manufacture  of  guava- jelly.  There  are  railroad- car 
and  machine-shops.  Sugar  and  molasses  are  sent  to  the 
United  States,  amounting,  from  1891  to  1895,  to  $59,988,497. 
The  climate  is  fine,  and  Matanzas  is  considered  the  most 
healthful  city  on  the  island.  With  proper  drainage  and 
sanitary  arrangements  yellow  fever  and  malaria  would  be 
almost  unknown. 

The  streets  are  well  laid  out  and  paved  with  stone ;  sev- 
eral handsome  plazas  with  ornamental  trees  and  flowers  are 
interspersed  here  and  there ;  and  the  houses  in  the  better 
quarters  are  large  and  neat-looking  two- story  buildings, 
the  upper  portions  of  which  are  used  as  residences.  These 
are  all  stuccoed  in  drab  or  ocher  colors,  and  have  neat  and 
ornate  balconies  along  the  second  story.  Club-houses, 
churches,  and  theaters  of  no  small  proportions  also  abound, 
and  a  handsome  administration  building.  Matanzas  has  a 
large  pleasure-boulevard,  known  as  the  Paseo,  which  is  laid 
.  out  with  gravel  walks  and  rows  of  trees,  with  a  stony  para- 
pet and  iron  gates  at  each  end  of  the  drive.  It  is  about  a 
half-mile  in  length. 

Newtown,  lying  to  the  east  of  the  city,  is  marked  by  a 
handsome  street  called  the  Calzada  de  Esteban,  and  con- 
tains in  one  block  some  of  the  most  tasteful  dwelling-houses 
to  be  seen  in  Cuba.  The  houses  are  large  and  imposing, 
having  handsome  pillared  front  porticos  with  iron  railings, 
and  generally  covered  with  extensive  luxuriant  vines. 
Prettily  colored  tiles  are  used  along  this  street  for  the 
formation  of  terraces.  The  strong  color-effects  of  these 
houses,  which  would  look  gaudy  in  our  climate,  are  very 
pleasing  in  Cuba. 

In  the  northeast  part  of  the  city,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Yumuri,  and  immediately  overlooking  the  shore  of  the  bay, 
is  the  suburb  known  as  Versailles.  This  is  a  picturesque 
spot,  the  home  of  the  boatmen  and  fishermen,  and  has  a 
look  of  antiquity  suggestive  of  the  fact  that  it  may  have 
been  the  original  site  of  the  city. 


122  CUBA   AND   POETO   RICO 

Matanzas  is  surrounded  by  a  beautiful  suburban  country. 
The  caves  of  Bellamar  to  the  east,  and  the  valley  of  the 
Yumuri,  elsewhere  described,  are  natural  objects  which 
almost  equal  in  interest  our  Yellowstone  Park  and  Mam- 
moth Cave.  The  abra,  or  canon,  of  the  Yumuri,  with  its 
vertical  walls  overhanging  a  grass-covered  walk  beneath 
the  cliffs  and  by  the  beautiful  stream,  and  the  shady  waters 
of  the  San  Juan,  to  the  south  of  the  city,  are  natural  plea- 
sure-resorts such  as  no  American  city  possesses,  and  are 
fully  appreciated  by  the  Matanzans,  who  find  recreation 
therein  by  boating  and  picnicking.  The  San  Juan  is  as- 
cended by  rowboats  for  about  four  miles  to  a  sugar-estate 
known  as  Los  Molinos,  where  there  are  pretty  falls,  the 
water-power  of  which  runs  the  machinery.  Short  railway 
journeys  from  Matanzas  also  carry  one  to  many  interesting 
sugar-estates,  such  as  those  around  the  pueblo  of  Union 
and  the  famous  Concepcion  estate  of  the  Aldama  family. 

Railways  run  from  Matanzas  south,  east,  and  west,  making 
the  city  easily  accessible  from  all  parts  of  the  Vuelta  Arriba. 

Cardenas,  founded  in  1828,  is  one  of  the  few  towns  of 
Cuba  built  in  this  century.  It  lies  on  a  spacious  bay  shel- 
tered by  a  long  promontory.  It  is  one  of  the  principal 
sugar- exporting  places  of  the  island,  and  is  co,nnected  by 
rail  with  Matanzas,  Havana,  Santa  Clara,  and  Cienfuegos, 
and  by  regular  steamers  with  all  the  coast  towns. 

It  is  a  thriving  place,  being  the  depot  and  shipping-port 
of  a  fine  adjacent  sugar-growing  district.  The  city  is  regu- 
larly laid  out  with  broad  streets,  and  has  a  fine  large  plaza 
in  the  center,  in  which  stands  a  bronze  statue  of  Columbus. 
A  large  number  of  Americans  are  engaged  in  business,  and 
form  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  mercantile  community. 
There  are  a  church,  several  cafes,  and  a  number  of  fine, 
well-built  wharves,  some  of  which  extend  a  long  distance 
from  the  shore.  The  inhabitants  claim  that  the  town  is 
generally  a  cool  place,  but,  as  Hazard  has  remarked,  I 
cannot  at  this  moment  recollect  any  one  inducement  to  the 
traveler  to  visit  it,  unless  he  deals  in  sugar  and  molasses. 


OTHEE  CUBAN   CITIES  123 

Between  Cardenas  and  Juacaro,  at  the  station  of  Pijuan, 
there  was  a  very  fine  sugar-estate  known  as  the  Flor  de 
Cuba.  It  contained  about  three  thousand  acres  of  beauti- 
ful rolling  land,  upon  which  were  a  substantial  factory  and 
elegant  dwelling. 

Sagua  la  Grande  is  the  next  place  of  importance  along 
the  north  coast,  east  of  Cardenas.  It  is  twenty-five  miles 
from  the  mouth  of  a  river  of  the  same  name,  and  two  hun- 
dred miles  from  Havana.  The  city  is  entirely  devoted  to 
the  sugar-trade.  In  comparison  with  other  Cuban  towns 
it  is  an  unattractive  place,  although  in  climate  and  sanitary 
arrangements  it  is  superior  to  most  places.  It  is  the 
eastern  north-coast  termination  of  the  Havana  railway 
system. 

A  railway  crosses  the  island  from  Sagua  to  Cienfuegos. 
This  may  be  said  to  mark  the  boundary  between  the  Vuelta 
Arriba,  or  western  Cuba,  and  the  more  broken  configura- 
tion of  Camaguey.  East  of  this  line  for  a  considerable 
distance  the  urban  centers  of  life  and  industry  are  shifted 
from  the  northern  to  the  southern  seaboard,  toward  Cien- 
fuegos and  Trinidad,  although  Remedios  and  Caibarien,  on 
the  north  coast  of  Santa  Clara,  are  important  places. 

Cienfuegos,  on  the  south  side,  is  a  modern  place,  situated 
on  a  magnificent  landlocked  harbor,  with  a  narrow 
entrance  known  as  the  Bay  of  Jagua.  It  was  this  bay 
that  Columbus  visited  on  his  first  voyage,  and  which 
Father  Las  Casas,  in  speaking  of,  described  as  the  most 
magnificent  port  in  the  world,  comprising  within  its  shores 
six  square  leagues.  Although  surveyed  by  Ocampo  in  1508, 
and  spoken  of  by  Herrera  as  a  haven  unrivaled  in  the 
world,  the  town  was  settled  only  in  1819  by  refugees  from 
Santo  Domingo.  Within  the  past  twenty  years  its  trade  has 
increased  enormously.  It  is  now  the  second  seaport  in  the 
island. 

The  water  of  the  bay  is  a  beautiful  transparent  green, 
through  which,  at  a  great  depth,  can  be  seen  the  white 
sandy  bottom.    Its  depth  at  the  anchorage  is  twenty-seven 


124  CUBA  AND   PORTO   KICO 

feet,  and  at  the  wharves  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  feet.  A 
circular  railway  leading  to  a  wharf  and  large  warehouses 
facihtates  the  loading  and  unloading  of  vessels.  Many 
local  steamers  leave  the  town  for  Batabano,  Trinidad,  San- 
tiago, and  the  Isle  of  Pines.  The  many  ships  at  anchorage 
alongside  the  wharves,  and  the  picturesque  background  of 
hills,  are  imposing  sights. 

This  little  city,  which  is  the  metropolis  of  central  Cuba, 
is  a  model  of  its  kind,  has  a  population  of  23,517,  and 
is  the  center  of  the  sugar-trade  of  the  south  side  of  the 
island.  The  streets  are  regularly  laid  out ;  the  houses  are 
well  built ;  and  there  are  beautiful  shade-trees  and  plazas, 
one  of  which  is  the  largest  in  Cuba.  There  is  a  handsome 
main  avenue,  at  the  end  of  which  are  fine  statues  to  Gen- 
eral Serrano,  a  former  governor  of  the  island,  and  to 
General  Clouet,  a  founder  of  the  town  of  Cienfuegos,  who 
was  an  emigre  from  Louisiana. 

Cienfuegos  is  lighted  by  gas  and  electricity,  has  abun- 
dant water-supply,  excellent  clubs,  and  a  theater.  It  has 
also  an  imposing  governor's  house,  military  and  govern- 
ment hospitals,  market-place,  and  railway-station. 

Some  of  the  largest  and  finest  sugar-estates  in  the  world 
are  situated  near  this  city,  including  the  Soledad  and  others. 
Probably  no  place  on  the  island  offers  greater  advantages 
for  seeing  sugar-making  in  its  most  favorable  aspects. 

The  climate  of  Cienfuegos  from  December  1  until  May  is 
dry  and  moderately  warm,  the  temperature  ranging  from 
60°  to  78°  during  the  day,  and  falling  several  degrees  at 
night.  At  this  season  almost  constant  winds  preyail  from 
the  northeast  or  northwest,  accompanied  by  clouds  of  dust. 
For  the  i^st  of  the  year  the  temperature  ranges  from  75° 
to  93°,  descending  a  few  degi*ees  at  night. 

Trinidad,  to  the  east  of  Cienfuegos,  dates  from  the  first 
years  of  the  conquest.  The  town  was  settled  by  Diego 
Velasquez  in  1513,  and,  like  Baracoa  and  Santiago,  repre- 
sents one  of  the  earliest  fortified  cities  of  the  New  World. 
The  town  and  harbor  were  the  scene  of  many  desperate 


OTHER  CUBAN   CITIES  125 

combats  during  the  reign  of  the  bucaneers.  Although 
the  city  is  a  short  distance  back  from  the  sea,  it  is  con- 
venient to  no  fewer  than  three  harbors  and  an  excellent 
roadstead. 

Trinidad  has  a  picturesque  setting  of  high  hills  and 
mountains.  It  is  located  on  the  slope  of  the  mountain 
called  La  Yigia  ("Lookout"),  which  has  an  elevation  of  about 
nine  hundred  feet  above  sea-level.  The  port,  Casilda,  lies 
about  one  league  to  the  south ;  the  harbor  is  almost  land- 
locked and  has  very  little  depth.  Vessels  drawing  ten  feet 
six  inches  are  liable  to  run  aground  with  the  least  devia- 
tion from  the  tortuous  channel.  About  half  a  mile  west 
of  Trinidad  is  the  river  Gruarabo,  navigable  for  small  boats 
only.  Four  miles  east  lies  Masio  Bay,  which  will  accommo- 
date deep-draft  vessels.  The  population  numbers  about 
eighteen  thousand.  Sugar  and  a  little  honey  are  exported. 
The  place  is  so  situated  that  the  hea^'ier  it  rains  the  cleaner 
it  becomes.  The  climate  is  very  healthful,  the  death-rate 
being  21  to  26  per  1000,  though  sanitary  measures  are  almost 
unknown.  The  town  and  vicinity  are  considered  the 
most  healthful  in  Cuba. 

The  streets,  with  some  exceptions,  are  narrow  and  tor- 
tuous ;  there  are  some  fine  public  buildings,  and  the  houses 
vary  from  the  humble  tiled-roofed,  one- story  affairs  of 
the  common  people  to  the  handsome  private  edifices  of  the 
wealthy.  The  market-place  is  a  very  fine  square  in  the 
southeast  end  of  the  town,  surrounded  by  baiTacks  and 
drill-grounds  for  the  troops.  The  Flor  de  Carillo,  situated 
near  the  center  of  the  town,  is  beautifully  laid  out  with 
vines  and  shrubbery,  shading  the  stone  walks,  and  a  pro- 
fusion of  flowers.  In  the  center  of  the  square  there  is  a 
graceful  arbor  completely  covered  with  flowering  vines. 
A  broad  stone  walk  extends  around  this  square,  lighted 
by  a  profusion  of  gas-jets,  giving  the  park  a  peculiarly 
beautiful  appearance  at  night. 

There  are  many  pleasant  drives  and  rides  around  Trini- 
dad, the  favorite  of  which  is  the  ascent  of  Vigia,  one  of 


126  CUBA  AND   POKTO   BICO 

the  large  conical  mountains  from  which  a  grand  view  of 
the  landscape  may  be  obtained.  The  Pico  del  Potrerillo,  the 
highest  mountain  of  central  Cuba,  is  also  accessible  from 
Trinidad.  The  Lomo  del  Puerto  commands  a  valley  said 
to  be  the  most  beautiful  on  the  south  side  of  the  island. 
Within  the  boundaries  of  this  valley  are  no  less  than  fifty 
ingenios,  or  sugar-plantations,  some  of  them  of  the  finest 
class.  A  number  of  beautiful  streams  of  water,  including 
the  Ay  and  Agabama,  unite  to  form  the  river  Manati, 
which  empties  into  the  sea  east  of  Casilda.  This  stream  is 
navigable  for  seven  miles,  and  by  it  the  planters  send  their 
sugar  and  molasses  out  of  the  valley.  A  railroad  from 
Casilda  runs  out  of  the  valley  for  some  distance.  The 
magnificent  country  place  of  the  Cantera  family,  known  as 
the  Recreo  or  Quinta,  if  it  has  been  spared  the  devastation 
of  revolution,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  private  houses 
in  Cuba,  rivaling  even  the  palace  of  the  captain-general 
at  Havana.  A  lovely  canon  leads* out  of  the  mountains 
just  behind  the  city.     In  the  winter  Trinidad  is  very 

gay. 

East  of  Trinidad,  which  is  near  the  central  meridian  of 
the  island,  important  cities  begin  to  appear  in  the  interior, 
such  as  Santa  Clara,  Remedios,  Esperanza,  Puerto  Prin- 
cipe, and  Holguin.  These  are  all  peculiar  and  interesting 
places,  where  true  Cuban  life  can  best  be  seen,  uncontami- 
nated  by  the  modern  commercial  spirit. 

Santa  Clara  is  now  called  Villa  Clara.  It  was  founded 
in  1689,  and  numbered  about  twelve  thousand  inhabitants, 
many  of  whom  were  formerly  people  of  great  wealth,  the 
women  being  celebrated  for  their  beauty.  At  the  time  of 
my  last  visit,  in  1894,  a  large  and  excellent  hotel  had  been 
constructed.  Spacious  rooms,  generous  meals,  clean  ser- 
vice, and  hospitable  attention  were  provided,  all  on  the 
European  style,  not  equal  to  our  best  New  York  hotels, 
but  far  better  than  are  met  with  in  interior  towns  of  simi- 
lar size  in  the  United  States.  Villa  Clara  is  connected  by 
two  trains  daily  with  Cienfuegos  and  Havana.    The  coun- 


GENERAL    VIEW 


THE   CATHEDRAL 

SANTIAGO   DE  CUBA 


OTHER  CUBAN   CITIES  127 

try  in  this  portion  of  Cuba  is  diversified  hill  and  plain, 
with  many  superb  plantations  in  the  valleys. 

Camaguey,  as  the  Cubans  call  the  town,  or  Puerto  Prin- 
cipe, as  it  is  officially  designated,  although  remote  from  the 
sea-coast,  is  the  chief  interior  city  of  Cuba,  and  claims  to 
be  the  most  Creole  of  Cuban  towns.  The  city  lies  on  a 
plain  about  midway  between  the  two  coasts,  and  is  con- 
nected by  rail  with  Nuevitas  to  the  northeast. 

In  the  basin  of  the  Cauto,  Bayamo  is  the  principal  place. 
This  is  a  very  old  town,  which  was  founded  on  a  southern 
affluent  of  the  main  stream  during  the  first  years  of  the 
conquest.  It  was  at  Yara,  a  little  southwest  of  this  place, 
that  the  great  republican  rising  took  place  in  1868.  The 
next  year,  when  the  Spanish  troops  made  their  appearance, 
the  inhabitants  themselves  set  fire  to  their  houses.  Dur- 
ing the  present  revolution  Bayamo  has  been  an  important 
stronghold. 

Holguin,  lying  to  the  northward  of  the  Cauto,  is  also  an 
important  city  of  this  part  of  Cuba. 

Manzanillo  is  the  only  town  of  importance  on  the  south 
coast  between  Trinidad  and  Santiago.  This  is  a  low  place, 
situated  south  of  the  Cauto  delta,  and  by  nature  is,  per- 
haps, the  most  unhealthful  city  on  the  island,  not  only 
owing  to  the  marshy  surroundings,  but  because  it  is  cut 
off  by  the  high  Sierra  Maestra  from  the  health-giving 
trade-winds  from  the  south  and  east.  Notwithstanding 
these  facts  it  is  an  important  commercial  and  exporting 
point,  being  the  outlet  of  the  fertile  Cauto  valley,  from 
which  are  shipped  large  quantities  of  tobacco,  sugar,  wax, 
honey,  and  other  agricultural  produce. 

Santiago  de  Cuba,  or  Saint  Jago  of  the  natives,  is  a  city 
of  Cuba  which  is  second  only  to  Havana  in  strategic  and 
political  importance,  and  is  the  capital  of  the  east  end  of 
the  island.  The  city  is  situated  one  hundred  miles  west  of 
the  eastern  cape  of  Cuba,  upon  a  beautiful  bay,  six  miles 
long,  so  completely  landlocked  that  its  narrow  entrance  can 
hardly  be  seen  from  the  sea.     Looking  from  the  steamer's 


128  CUBA  AND   POKTO   EICO 

deck  nothing  is  visible  but  the  straight  coast-line  of  high 
mountains,  presenting  apparently  an  impenetrable  front ; 
but  on  closer  approach  a  narrow  rent  is  seen,  only  one  hun- 
dred and  eighty  feet  in  width,  but  of  good  depth.  Once 
within  the  harbor  to  which  this  passage  gives  entrance, 
one  is  well  disposed  to  join  in  the  chorus  of  praise  which 
has  been  awarded  to  it  by  sailors  and  others  who  describe 
it  as  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world ;  and  certainly  it  has 
many  admirable  points  which  one  realizes  only  from  the 
inside. 

The  first  Spanish  colonizer  of  Cuba,  Velasquez,  was  not 
slow  to  seize  upon  the  great  natural  advantages  which  the 
harbor  presented,  and  two  years  after  establishing  the  first 
capital  at  Baracoa  he  removed  the  seat  of  government,  in 
1514,  to  Santiago ;  hence  the  place  may  justly  claim  to  be 
one  of  the  oldest  cities  in  America,  dating  from  the  days 
of  Columbus.  The  narrow  entrance  to  the  harbor  presents 
several  pretty  objects.  On  the  east  point  is  Morro  Cas- 
tle, which  was  built  by  the  old  Spanish  warrior  Pedro  de 
la  Rocca  about  the  year  1640.  Looking  at  it,  one  would 
scarcely  believe  it  possessed  much  defensive  effectiveness 
when  pitted  against  modern  men-of-war.  From  the  point 
of  view  of  the  artist,  however,  it  is  perfect.  A  flight  of 
well-worn  steps  winds  from  the  water's  edge  up  the  side  of 
the  grim  old  brown-and-yellow  walls,  all  covered  with  moss 
and  ivy,  to  the  solid  battlements  on  top,  while  the  moat, 
drawbridge,  and  other  surroundings  make  up  a  charming 
picture,  suggestive  of  the  days  of  gallant  knights  and  im- 
prisoned maidens.  A  little  farther  in,  at  the  left,  is  the 
castle  known  as  La  Socapa,  which  is  also  very  picturesque. 
On  the  same  side  as  Morro  is  a  small  star-shaped  fortifi- 
cation known  as  La  Estrella.  Still  farther  in  small  islands 
appear,  on  one  of  which,  at  the  left,  is  built  the  hamlet  of 
Cayo  Smith.  The  latter  is  the  watering-place  of  the  best 
families  of  Santiago,  and  has  many  beautiful  villas.  There 
is  another  island  at  the  beginning  of  the  bay,  where  the 
magazines  are  located.    The  narrow  neck  of  the  bay,  toward 


SMITH    KEY 


MORRO   CASTLE 

SANTIAGO  DE  CUBA 


OTHER  CUBAN   CITIES  129 

its  interior  end,  is  bordered  by  steep  mountain-sides  cov- 
ered with  tropical  vegetation. 

The  bay  itself  is  a  magnificent  body  of  water,  capable,  as 
has  been  shown  in  the  present  warfare,  of  harboring  a 
whole  fleet.  As  a  background,  the  magnificent  heights  of 
the  Sierra  Maestra  appear,  assuming  in  the  early  morning 
the  peculiar  purple  color  seen  to  such  effect  in  the  Blue 
Mountains  of  Jamaica.  Not  only  to  the  north,  but  east 
and  west  also,  tall  mountains  raise  their  heads  around  the 
harbor,  forming  a  vast  amphitheater  of  nature,  with  the 
blue  waters  of  the  bay  as  a  foreground.  On  the  right  side 
of  the  bay,  toward  its  mouth,  is  a  place  used  by  the  govern- 
ment as  a  coaling-station,  known  as  Cinco  Reales. 

To  the  right  of  the  city,  toward  La  Cruz,  is  a  small  fort 
called  Punta  Blanca,  which  takes  its  name  from  the  bank 
of  white  sand  on  which  it  rests.  On  the  hills  above  are 
several  small  blockhouse  forts.  A  large  building,  used  as 
a  convalescent  hospital  for  the  Spanish  soldiers,  is  a  con- 
spicuous object  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  bay,  while  on 
the  hillside  near  the  suburban  village  of  La  Cruz  are  many 
beautiful  houses  with  blue-and-yellow  walls,  a  quaint  tur- 
ret or  tower  projecting  here  and  there  through  the  matrix 
of  royal  palms. 

The  town  of  Santiago  itself  lies  at  the  extreme  northeast 
indentation  of  the  bay,  upon  a  sloping  hillside  about  six  miles 
from  the  sea.  It  is  a  quaint  and  peculiar  city  of  the  character- 
istic Moorish  architecture,  with  roofs  of  red  tile.  Many  of  the 
houses  are  only  one  stoiy  high,  but  there  are  larger  struc- 
tures. The  dwelling-houses  are  surrounded  by  spacious 
verandas,  which  give  upon  beautiful  gardens  filled  with  a 
wealth  of  gorgeous  tropical  flowers ;  orange-,  lime-,  poin- 
settia-,  and  hibiscus-trees  give  a  variety  of  color.  One  of  the 
best  features  of  the  place  is  the  Alameda,  the  road  extend- 
ing along  the  water-front  for  about  half  a  mile,  with  a  good 
surface  for  cycling,  and  shaded  by  waving  palms  and  other 
trees.  At  its  eastern  end  is  a  very  pretty  botanical  garden, 
and  about  midway  in  its  course  is  a  charming  rustic  pavil- 


130  CUBA   AND  PORTO   KICO 

ion,  directly  opposite  the  pier  which  leads  to  the  comfor- 
table quarters  of  the  Club  Nautica.  Both  the  club  and  the 
Alameda  are  chiefly  due  to  the  efforts  of  the  foreign  resi- 
dents, who  control  the  trade  of  the  city.  There  are  no 
hotels,  but  the  Anglo-American  Club  usually  takes  care  of 
respectable  strangers,  and  travelers  have  declared  that  it 
supplied  the  best-cooked  meals  and  was  the  cleanest  and 
most  comfortable  stopping-place  for  foreigners  in  the  West 
Indies. 

The  commercial  houses  are  not  imposing,  and  convey 
a  wrong  impression  of  the  business  transacted  therein. 
Looking  at  the  shabby,  tumbledown  offices,  one  can 
hardly  credit  that  some  of  the  firms  transact  operations 
aggregating  several  millions  a  year. 

The  old  cathedral  forms  the  eastern  boundary  of  the 
Plaza  de  Armas,  where  on  Thursday  and  Sunday  nights  it 
was  the  custom  of  the  citizens  and  senoritas  to  promenade 
while  listening  to  the  music  of  the  military  bands.  The 
government  house  and  the  Club  San  Carlos  are  two  of 
many  respectable  buildings  on  this  plaza.  Among  the 
other  city  buildings  mention  may  be  made  of  the  large 
military  barracks  and  hospital  on  the  hill  to  the  northwest, 
and  the  theater,  now  in  a  dilapidated  state,  in  which  it  is 
claimed  that  Adelina  Patti,  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  and 
under  the  direction  of  Gottschalk,  made  her  debut  on  the 
public  stage. 

Santiago  is  the  center  of  the  mineral  district  of  Cuba, 
and  railways  radiate  from  the  city  to  the  mines  of  the 
various  American  iron  and  manganese  companies,  east  and 
west  along  the  coast,  and  southward  through  a  high  pass  in 
the  mountains  to  the  village  of  El  Cobre,  at  the  site  of  the 
abandoned  copper-mines.  The  city  is  largely  embargoed 
from  the  interior  by  the  mountains,  but  much  commerce 
passes  across  the  latter  to  the  interior  valley  of  the  Cauto. 
In  the  future  development  of  Cuba,  as  in  the  past,  it  will 
always  be  of  more  or  less  importance,  owing  to  its  strategic 
position  near  the  Windward  Passage,  or  principal  entrance 
to  the  Caribbean.     Under  a  stable  government  the  adjacent 


CALLE    DE    PUERTO 


SANTIAGO   DE   CUBA 


OTHER  CUBAN   CITIES  131 

mountains  will  become  the  seat  of  extensive  coffee  and 
fruit  production. 

The  population  in  1895  was  59,614,  many  people  having 
been  driven  away  by  the  revolution.  The  mean  tempera- 
ture in  summer  is  88° ;  in  winter,  82°.  It  is  regarded  as 
very  unhealthf ul,  yellow  fever  being  prevalent  throughout 
the  year,  and  smallpox  epidemic  at  certain  times.  Santi- 
ago is  the  headquarters  for  three  large  mining  plants  owned 
by  United  States  citizens,  namely,  the  Juragua,  the  Spanish- 
American,  and  the  Sigua,  together  representing  the  invest- 
ment of  about  eight  million  dollars.  There  are  a  number 
of  tobacco-factories,  but  the  chief  business  is  the  exporta- 
tion of  raw  materials,  and  the  importation  of  manufactured 
goods  and  provisions.  Sugar,  iron  ore,  manganese,  mahog- 
any, hides,  wax,  cedar,  and  tobacco  are  exported  to  the 
United  States. 

Guantanamo  is  the  only  other  place  of  importance  on  the 
Sierra  Maestra  coast.  It  is  about  fifty  miles  east  of  Santiago, 
and,  like  it,  at  the  interior  end  of  a  beautiful  but  shallower 
landlocked  bay,  and  is  one  of  the  most  charming  Uttle 
cities  in  Cuba.  The  coast  country,  particularly,  is  noted  for 
its  beautiful  groves  of  lime-  and  lemon-trees.  The  heights 
were  once  the  favorite  place  for  the  residences  of  wealthy 
sugar-  and  coffee-planters  from  the  middle  and  eastern 
regions,  where  all  the  richest  sugar-estates  are  situated. 
It  was  a  Cuban  Newport  or  Bar  Harbor.  The  cafetals,  or 
coffee-plantations,  of  Cuba — and  there  are  many  of  them — 
are  all  located  on  the  hills  looking  down  upon  the  placid 
waters  of  Guantanamo  Bay.  Coffee-bushes  are  planted  in 
the  shade  of  other  and  larger  trees,  like  the  lemon  and 
lime,  which  grow  twenty-five  or  thirty  feet  high,  thus  fur- 
nishing the  perfect  shade  the  coffee-bush  needs.  Besides 
being  beautifully  ornamental  trees,  the  lemons  and  limes 
produce  great  quantities  of  the  finest  fruit,  which  has  a 
commercial  value  per  acre  far  exceeding  that  of  oranges. 

Mr.  William  H.  Stuart,  of-  the  sugar- refining  firm  of 
R.  L.  &  William  H.  Stuart  of  New  York,  the  proprietor  of 
the  sugar-plantation  La  Carolina,  the  finest  place  on  the 


132  CUBA   AND   PORTO   RICO 

southern  side  of  the  island  except  Don  Tomas  Terry's  es- 
tate, owned  a  charming  Italian  villa  on  a  point  just  opposite 
and  below  Guantanamo.  He  had  an  avenue  running  up 
from  the  seaside  to  his  residence,  nearly  a  mile  in  length, 
laid  down  in  shells,  and  shaded  on  either  side  by  a  gi-owth 
of  lime-  and  lemon-trees  for  the  entire  distance.  Don 
Emilio  deEivas,  another  very  rich  sugar-  and  coffee-planter, 
owned  a  superb  old  mansion  on  the  heights  just  above,  and 
to  the  southward  of  Guantanamo,  in  which  were  three 
hundred  acres  of  coffee-bushes,  shaded  and  covered  by 
groves  of  lemon-trees.  His  annual  income  from  fruit  and 
coffee  grown  here  averaged  for  over  ten  years  from  thirty- 
five  to  forty  thousand  dollars  in  gold. 

From  Guantanamo  to  Cape  Mayci,  the  eastern  point  of 
the  island,  and  thence  westward  along  the  northern  side  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Yumuri  of  Santiago,  one  sees  no  sign  of 
human  habitation,  except  a  few  huts  around  the  solitary 
lighthouse  on  the  point  of  the  island.  From  the  Yumuri 
westward  to  where  the  fin -like  string  of  keys  join  the  main- 
land are  to  be  seen  some  of  the  quaintest  and  certainly 
oldest  places  in  America,  the  principal  of  which  in  sailing 
westward  are  Baracoa,  Nipe,  Banes,  Gibara,  Padre,  and 
Nuevitas.  These  are  all  antique  and  interesting  places, 
possessing  many  old  ruins  and  fortifications. 

Baracoa,  the  most  eastern  port  of  the  north  coast  of  the 
island,  is  of  historic  interest,  inasmuch  as  it  is  one  of  the 
oldest  continuous  settlements  of  the  New  World,  having 
been  settled  by  Diego  Columbus,  the  son  of  Christopher,  in 
the  year  1514.  The  inhabitants— they  are  seven  thousand 
in  number — still  point  with  pride  to  the  ruins  of  his  house. 
It  will  also  go  down  in  history  as  the  point  near  which, 
on  February  20,  1895,  Antonio  Maceo  and  his  valiant 
band  of  nineteen  followers,  by  a  most  daring  and  success- 
ful landing,  started  the  present  revolution,  and  from  which 
within  a  year's  time  he  marched  to  the  western  extremity 
of  the  island. 

The  town  is  situated  on  a  projecting  tongue  of  elevated 


PLAZA 


STREET   SCENE 


MARKET  NEGROES 

SANTIAGO   DE   CUBA 


OTHEB  CUBAN   CITIES  133 

reef  rock,  at  the  top  of  which  is  a  little  star- shaped  fort  of 
medieval  structure.  The  inhabitants  show  you  where  the 
fii-st  cross  was  erected,  and  the  iidns  of  the  first  house  can 
still  be  seen.  The  circular  harbor  is  only  a  mile  in  diame- 
ter, but  has  a  picturesque  setting  of  high  hills  to  the  south 
and  west,  above  which  towers  the  gigantic  flat-topped  hiU 
known  as  El  Junki,  which  is  a  notable  landmark  to  the 
mariner  on  approaching  this  coast. 

Baracoa  is  the  center  for  banana  shipments,  and  many 
steamers  here  load  with  the  finest  and  largest  fruit  grown 
in  the  West  Indies.  Its  chief  industry  is  the  gi'inding 
of  cocoanuts  to  extract  oil.  There  are  two  establish- 
ments, with  a  capacity  of  thirty  thousand  cocoanuts  daily, 
employing  about  fifty  workmen.  There  are  also  a  petro- 
leum-refinery (closed  at  present)  and  a  chocolate-factory. 
Bananas  and  cocoanuts  are  exported  to  the  United  States 
($628,811  worth  in  1895). 

The  other  cities  of  this  general  region  are  also  unique, 
and,  like  Baracoa,  each  seems  to  be  the  metropolis  of 
a  limited  local  region,  cut  off  from  the  others  by  high 
mountains,  and  connected  with  the  outer  world  only  by 
the  sea. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE    FUTURE    OF    THE    ISLAND 

The  coming  industrial  rehabilitation.  Limitations  of  climate  and  possibil- 
ities. Opportunities  for  small  farming.  The  reopening  of  the  sugar- 
plantations.  Industrial  openings.  Future  railway  construction  and 
pubUc  works.  Harbors  and  municipal  improvements.  Commercial 
expansion. 

WITH  the  passing  of  the  Spanish  regime  in  Cuba,  which 
now  seems  assured,  one  is  naturally  inclined  to  specu- 
late concerning  its  political  and  commercial  futui'e.  Under 
the  solemn  declaration  of  the  resolution  passed  by  both 
bodies  of  our  Congress  and  signed  by  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  this  country  stands  committed  to  assist  the 
Cubanos  in  establishing  an  independent  form  of  government. 
It  is  our  solemn  duty  to  fulfil  this  obligation.  Back  of  it, 
however,  is  a  strong  feeling,  upon  the  part  of  Americans, 
foreign  residents  of  Cuba,  and  Cubanos,  that  the  ultimate 
destiny  of  this  island  will  be  absorption  into  the  American 
Union.  This  fate  has  been  predicted  by  every  intelligent 
student  and  desired  and  prayed  for  by  the  people  of  the 
island  for  over  half  a  century.  That  it  will  ultimately  be 
brought  about  by  natural  and  friendly  means  there  can  be 
no  doubt. 

Whether  it  remains  an  independent  republic  or  becomes 
a  part  of  our  territory,  it  is  generally  believed  that  the 
island  will  undergo  an  industrial  and  commercial  renais- 

134 


THE   FUTUKE   OF   THE   ISLAND  135 

sance  which  will  afford  openings  for  colonization  and  in- 
vestment by  the  American  people.  Accompanying  this 
opinion  there  is  a  demand  for  information  concerning  pos- 
sibilities in  these  directions. 

There  are  two  important  facts  which  the  American  who 
contemplates  invading  this  prospective  field  should  bear  in 
mind.  First,  that  Cuba  is  an  old  and  settled  country  in 
which  the  land  and  mineral  titles  are  largely  fixed,  and 
that  it  offers  no  opening  for  "  booming,"  such  as  has  fol- 
lowed the  opening  up  of  new  and  unsettled  countries. 
Real-estate  holdings  might  no  doubt  be  cheaply  acquired 
from  the  impoverished  inhabitants,  but  the  title  to  every 
acre  of  Cuba  is  vested  in  some  indi"\ddual ;  there  are  no  large 
bodies  of  valuable  vacant  public  land. 

A  second  fact  to  be  remembered  is  that,  while  the  climate 
of  Cuba  is  in  general  salubrious  and  in  winter  delightful, 
the  island  is  situated  within  the  tropics,  and  Northern  races 
cannot  be  established  there,  except  at  the  sacrifice  of 
many  lives.  People  from  our  Southern  coastal  States,  who 
have  already  attained  a  certain  immunity  from  tropical 
diseases,  might  be  able  to  endure  permanent  residence  in 
Cuba,  but  the  Northern  man  will  find  continuous  residence 
upon  the  island  impossible  without  physical  degeneration 
and  risk  of  annihilation.  Hence  the  American  who  seeks 
investment  in  Cuba  should  have  sufficient  means  to  enable 
him  to  return  frequently  to  his  native  country,  in  order  to 
recuperate  from  the  effects  of  the  tropical  climate. 

With  rehabilitation  of  Cuba  the  island  will  offer  oppor- 
tunities to  four  lines  of  investment :  agricultural  opportu- 
nities for  the  small  farmer ;  fields  of  investment  for  capi- 
talists, in  the  line  of  municipal  and  public  improvements ; 
employment  for  labor;  and  the  establishment  of  winter 
homes  and  resorts  for  the  leisure  classes. 

The  possibilities  in  the  lines  of  small  agriculture,  such 
as  dairying,  truck-gardening,  and  fruit-raising,  are  un- 
limited. The  large  city,  plantation,  and  industrial  popu- 
lations will  all  create  a  demand  for  the  products  of  the 


136  CUBA   AND   POETO   RICO 

vegetable  garden;  besides,  the  island  has  considerable 
opportunities  in  the  way  of  supplying  these  to  the  Northern 
United  States  in  winter.  The  fruit  industry  is  bound  to 
become  one  of  the  most  important,  as  the  island  is  pecu- 
liarly adapted  for  the  gi-owing  of  oranges,  lemons,  bananas, 
pineapples,  and  such  other  tropical  fruits  as  find  a  large 
consumption  in  this  country;  and  this  industry,  when 
stimulated  by  the  removal  of  tariff  restrictions,  will  un- 
doubtedly attain  in  Cuba  even  larger  proportions  than 
recently  shown  in  the  instances  of  Florida  and  the  Pacific 
coast.  The  cultivation  of  coffee,  sugar,  and  tobacco  will 
also  be  extended  and  improved  with  the  removal  of  the 
tariff  duties,  and  in  all  of  these  fields  there  is  room  for 
abundant  profit  and  pleasant  occupation. 

The  mountainous  eastern  end  of  Cuba  will  be  the  field  of 
most  profitable  fruit-  and  coffee-culture.  This  highly  fa- 
vored region  is  the  only  one,  outside  the  Mediterranean  shore 
between  Marseilles  and  Genoa,  that  will  produce  lemons 
equal  to  those  grown  in  Sicily.  Properly  conducted,  the 
lemon-culture,  with  that  of  peaches  and  superb  nectarines, 
that  begin  ripening  in  May  (both  these  fruits  are  superior 
to  the  same  kind  grown  in  southern  California),  would 
become  a  great  source  of  wealth  to  the  United  States. 
Lemons  and  limes  are  more  easily  grown  than  oranges, 
and  as  the  area  of  their  production  is  limited,  there  would 
be  no  surer  agricultural  road  to  fortune  than  their  cultiva- 
tion presents.  The  eastern  end  of  Cuba  is  one  of  the  finest 
regions  for  coffee-culture  in  the  world,  particularly  that 
portion  of  the  island  from  Santiago  to  Guantanamo,  and 
from  Cape  Mayci  to  Baracoa,  over  on  the  northern  side. 
If  Americans  ever  possess  this  island,  its  ores,  fruits, 
healthful  climate,  and  fine  mineral  springs  will  make  it 
one  of  the  richest  countries  in  the  world.  Oranges,  too, 
grow  without  cultivation  in  all  parts  of  the  island ;  but  no 
pains  have  been  taken  by  selection  or  otherwise  to  make 
them  equal  to  the  product  of  Florida.  Pineapples  are  gi-own 
in  and  exported  from  western  Cuba  and  the  Isle  of  Pines. 


THE  FUTURE  OF  THE  ISLAND  137 

There  is  a  tempting  opportunity  for  men  of  small  means 
to  settle  on  the  mountain  terraces,  and,  under  the  most 
genial  conditions  of  climate  all  the  year  round,  to  make  a 
fail'  livelihood  out  of  their  little  coffee-plantations.  To  the 
class  of  settlers  for  whom  our  Northern  climate  is  too 
severe,  the  chances  which  Cuba  offers  for  coffee-growing 
can  hardly  fail  to  be  pecuharly  attractive,  and  it  is  to  them 
we  may  have  to  look  for  the  first  infusion  of  the  best 
qualities  of  the  American  among  a  community  somewhat 
deficient  in  them. 

Dairying  and  cattle-raising  also  present  fair  prospective 
openings.  In  the  eastern  provinces  the  cattle  industry, 
owing  to  the  fertile  grazing-lands  existing  there,  reaches 
considerable  proportions,  the  product  being  large  and  fine 
animals  of  Spanish  stock.  There  is  also  some  horse-breed- 
ing in  all  parts  of  the  island,  the  characteristic  Cuban 
horse  being  a  stout  pony  descended  from  Andalusian  stock, 
with  the  build  of  a  cob,  and  a  peculiar  prancing  gait  which 
is  said  to  render  it  an  exceptionally  easy  riding-animal. 
There  is  always  a  good  demand  for  horses,  mules,  and  oxen. 

Large  capital  will  undoubtedly  be  devoted  to  reopening 
the  sugar-plantations.  It  is  a  mistake  to  assume  that  the 
beet-sugar  bounties  of  continental  Europe  must  render 
unprofitable  the  growing  of  the  sugar-cane  in  Cuba.  They 
did  contribute  to  the  ruin  of  most  of  the  non-resident  pro- 
prietors, out  of  the  savings  of  whose  stewards  and  super- 
intendents the  modern  city  of  Barcelona — the  Liverpool  of 
the  Mediterranean — is  said  to  have  been  built.  But  aU 
the  methods  of  sugar  production  practised  under  these  au- 
spices were  grossly  wasteful,  and  even  under  the  conditions 
which  existed  at  the  outbreak  of  the  latest  rebellion,  when 
there  were  two  successful  sugar-crops  of  over  a  million 
tons,  there  was  a  needless  waste.  Machinery  has  been 
brought  up  to  the  latest  standard,  and  the  transportation 
of  the  cane  to  the  mill  has  been  cheapened  by  the  construc- 
tion of  narrow-gage  railroads,  but  the  processes  of  agi'i- 
culture  are  still  capable  of  improvement.      When  it  is 


138  CUBA   AND   PORTO   RICO 

remembered  that  three  fourths  of  the  cost  of  sugar  pro- 
duction belongs  to  the  agricultural  side,  and  only  one 
fourth  to  the  mechanical  side,  the  extent  of  the  opportunity 
that  exists  for  improvement  will  be  appreciated. 

Roughly  speaking,  there  is  an  average  of  two  hundred 
pounds  of  sugar  to  every  two  thousand  pounds  of  cane. 
Under  the  most  favorable  conditions  there  may  be  three 
hundred  pounds  of  sugar  to  the  ton  of  cane.  But  if  this 
attainable  maximum  of  fifteen  per  cent,  of  sugar  could  be 
increased,  as  it  readily  might,  by  more  careful  cutting, 
planting,  and  cultivating,  to  twenty  per  cent.,  there  would 
be  an  immediate  increase  of  thirty-three  per  cent,  in  the 
yield,  with  little,  if  any,  increase  in  the  cost  of  raising  and 
harvesting. 

The  advantage  which  Cuba  possesses  over  all  the  other 
West  Indian  Islands  in  the  matter  of  sugar-growing  has 
already  been  alluded  to.  To  this  should  be  added  the 
notable  advantage  of  the  possession  of  deep  harbors,  ad- 
mitting of  direct  shipment  without  lighterage,  and  a  con- 
sequent saving  in  freight,  representing  an  appreciable 
percentage  of  profit.  That  an  increased  production  of 
sugar  would  add  to  the  wealth  of  Cuba  and  the  purchasing 
capacity  of  its  people  is  sufficiently  plain.  Considering, 
however,  that  sugar-growing  is  a  branch  of  agriculture 
best  conducted  on  a  large  scale  by  men  of  capital,  employ- 
ing, generally,  low-priced  labor,  the  regeneration  of  the 
island  can  hardly  be  looked  for  from  this  source. 

The  chief  opening  for  American  energies  will  be  found 
in  the  line  of  public  improvements.  Railways  must  be 
constructed,  cities  improved,  waterworks  and  sewerage 
systems  established,  harbors  dredged,  and  a  thousand  and 
one  public  works  undertaken  which  Spain  has  long  neg- 
lected, and  which  are  necessary  to  the  large  population 
which  the  island  already  possesses.  Concerning  the  pros- 
pects in  these  directions,  we  can  present  them  no  better 
than  by  summarizing  the  opinions  recently  expressed  by 
Mr.  W.  B.  Scaife,  an  American  engineer  who  has  had  long 


THE  FUTURE   OF   THE  ISLAND  139 

acquaintance  with  the  island,  and  who  "  has  entire  faith  in 
an  ultimate  bright  future  for  Spain  and  Cuba,  when  some 
Western  light  shall  shine  through  the  present  darkness,  and 
the  people  have  half  a  chance  to  educate  their  children  and 
take  some  real  part  in  the  government  of  their  country." 

The  various  directions  in  which  industrial  and  engineer- 
ing works  may  be  carried  out  may  be  generally  stated  to 
be  the  same  as  those  which  present  themselves  in  any  new 
country,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  Cuba  is  the  oldest  settle- 
ment in  America.  The  opportunity  for  the  building  of  com- 
mon roads  is  larger,  and  in  most  places  there  is  an  abundance 
of  stone  for  the  purpose.  The  roads  cross  rivers,  etc.,  by 
fords,  which  are  impassable  soon  after  the  rains  set  in,  and, 
although  the  streams  are  neither  large  nor  very  numerous, 
the  necessity  for  bridges  is  great.  A  glance  at  the  map 
will  show  that  the  great  bulk  of  the  island  to  the  east  of 
Santa  Clara  is  yet  untouched.  Part  of  the  region  is  still 
unexplored.  In  the  cultivation  of  the  cane,  both  in  the 
preparing  of  the  land  and  in  the  planting  and  harvesting, 
there  is  a  crying  need  of  machinery.  The  planting  of  the 
cane  is  nearly  all  done  by  hand.  There  are  a  few  cane- 
planting  machines,  but  little  is  known  about  them.  The 
weeding  is  done  by  hand  in  the  majority  of  instances,  and 
feially  the  harvesting  is  done  with  a  knife ;  and  a  laborious 
business  it  is.  It  takes  five  hundred  men  per  day  to  cut 
the  cane  alone  on  a  large  estate,  to  say  nothing  of  loading, 
and  teaming  to  the  railroad-tracks ;  and  the  man  who  can 
successfully  solve  the  problem  of  a  cane-harvester  has  a 
large  field  to  work  in. 

The  supplying  of  the  sugar-houses  with  new  machinery 
has  been  an  enormous  business  in  the  last  decade.  It  has 
been  in  the  hands  of  the  Scotch,  French,  and  American 
machine-houses  mostly,  as  the  German  and  other  Conti- 
nental houses  have  fought  shy  of  the  long  credits  demanded, 
the  insufficient  security,  and  the  general  lack  of  faith  in 
Cuban  business  affairs.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  much 
new  business  in  this  direction  must  spring  up  with  the 


140  CUBA   AND    POETO   EICO 

settlement  of  the  present  troubles,  and  it  will  doubtless 
gain  in  security  with  time. 

No  electric  roads  exist  in  Cuba  at  the  present  time,  but 
their  immediate  institution  may  be  looked  for.  It  is  a 
singular  fact  that  the  travel  on  the  various  coasting- 
steamers,  on  the  vessels  running  up  the  small  rivers,  on  the 
raih'oads,  and  on  the  few  busses  that  run  to  the  suburbs 
of  the  larger  towns,  is  very  much  larger  than  one  would 
expect  from  the  apparent  nature  of  the  people  and  their 
means.  The  wiiter  has  constantly  been  surprised  at  the 
overcrowding  of  these  means  of  travel,  and  understands, 
on  the  best  authority,  that  the  business  pays  handsomely. 
The  rates  chai'ged  are  usually  exorbitant. 

The  extension  and  improvement  of  steam-railways,  open- 
ing up  the  country  and  giving  better  service,  is  sure  to  be 
a  very  paying  business  in  the  future,  while  there  are  a 
number  of  towns,  besides  Havana,  in  which  electric  roads 
could  be  run  to  advantage. 

Municipal  improvements  will  also  give  much  work  to 
engineers.  First  among  these  is  the  drainage  of  the  towns. 
The  sewers,  where  any  exist,  are  horrible  things,  built 
without  the  most  elementary  knowledge,  in  which  the  con- 
gested filth  of  years  breeds  disease  and  vile  odors.  Means 
of  flushing  them  do  not  exist,  and  undoubtedly  the  dump- 
ing of  house-refuse  and  emptying  of  substitutes  for  water- 
closets  along  the  curbstone  are  less  dangerous  to  health 
than  such  a  sewerage  system.  To  this  abominable  condi- 
tion of  the  towns  may  be  traced  the  prevalence  of  fevers, 
smallpox,  and  dysentery.  These  diseases  are  unconmion 
on  the  isolated  estates,  and  the  writer  firmly  believes  they 
may  be  almost  entirely  eliminated  from  the  island  by 
giving  attention  in  the  towns  to  the  ordinary  rules  of 
sanitation. 

Another  and  equally  important  need  in  Cuban  towns  is 
water.  Havana  is  pretty  well  supplied,  but  in  most  other 
towns  there  is  very  little  or  none  besides  the  rain-water 
stored,  during  the  wet  season,  in  great  stone  cisterns  be- 


THE   FUTURE   OF   THE   ISLAND  141 

neath  the  houses.  It  is  not  that  the  people  in  general  do 
not  fully  appreciate  the  necessity  and  luxury  of  water,  but 
that  the  executive  power  is  lacking.  Taxes  are  raised  for 
this  pui'pose,  and  special  taxes  are  sometimes  le\ded  to 
build  new  works,  or  for  coal  to  keep  the  pump  going ;  but 
(and  this  may  serve  as  an  instance  of  many  transactions) 
the  money  is  calmly  banked  to  the  credit  of  the  officials,  or 
the  coal  is  bought  and  resold  for  their  benefit.  Water  is 
lacking  in  the  towns  duiing  the  dry  season,  and  might 
easily  be  had.  Excellent  springs  abound  in  most  places, 
and  small  rivers  of  good  water  are  fairly  common. 

Connected  with  the  cities  and  towns  may  be  cited  harbor 
improvements.  Cuba  is  the  land  of  fine  harbors.  Havana, 
Matanzas,  Santiago,  Guantanamo,  Cienfuegos,  and  many 
other  less  important  spots  have  splendid  harbors,  and,  with 
the  exception  of  Matanzas,  which  is  wide  at  the  mouth,  the 
entrances  are  so  narrow  that  inside  they  resemble  inland 
lakes  in  form  and  tranquillity.  But  more  piers  and  wharves 
for  sea-going  vessels  are  much  needed. 

Much  loading  and  unloading  is  done  by  means  of  light- 
ers. Money  is  collected  for  the  construction  of  piers 
and  the  dredging  of  approaches  to  them,  but  no  work  is 
done,  for  a  very  profitable  understanding  seems  to  exist 
between  the  owners  of  the  lighters  and  the  city  govern- 
ments on  these  points.  Such  a  condition  of  things  cannot 
continue  for  very  long.  In  a  prosperous  season  Cuba  ships 
a  million  tons  of  sugar  alone,  and  surely,  under  a  half- 
enlightened  government,  this  were  worth  an  occasional 
pier. 

What  the  iron  and  copper  deposits  may  amount  to,  it  is 
now  impossible  to  say,  but  that  both  exist  in  paying  quan- 
tities is  undoubted.  In  the  total  absence  of  any  official 
reports  on  which  the  smallest  reliance  can  be  placed,  the 
prospecting  engineer  must  attack  the  problem  of  Cuban 
mining  from  the  veiy  beginning.  All  one  can  say  at  pres- 
ent is  that  the  field  is  a  promising  one.  The  ore  deposits 
lie  near  the  coast,  and  the  large  shipments  of  iron  ore, 


142  CUBA   AND    PORTO   RICO 

even  in  these  troubled  times,  attest  its  value  in  the  eyes  of 
American  buyers.  However,  the  mining  industries  will  be 
confined  to  the  mountainous  region  of  eastern  Cuba. 

In  looking  at  the  future  development  of  Cuba  we  have 
to  consider  the  question  of  labor.  This  is  of  three  kinds 
—white,  black,  and  yellow.  The  white  labor  consisted  of 
native  Cubans,  natives  of  the  Canaiy  Islands,  and  Span- 
iards, of  whom  the  latter  are  far  the  best  for  general  work. 

The  war  has  seen  the  complete  overturning  of  the  island's 
labor  system,  and  the  destruction  and  demoralization  of 
the  laborers.  No  white  man  can  do  manual  labor  in  the 
tropics  continuously  and  live,  unless  he  be  of  the  Latin 
races.  In  the  adjacent  islands,  especially  Jamaica,  there 
is  a  large  surplus  of  negroes  who  might  be  attracted  to 
the  island,  but  as  a  laboring  class  these  negroes  are  unreli- 
able ;  besides,  there  is  a  potent  danger,  which  we  need  not 
mention,  in  introducing  this  class  into  Cuba.  The  blacks 
of  our  Southern  States  might  be  drawn  upon  in  this  con- 
nection, but  notwithstanding  our  tendency  to  discourage 
them  at  home,  we  have  no  surplus  of  industrious  ones  to 
spare.  Altogether  the  most  prolific  source  of  laborers  must 
be  the  southern  lands  of  Europe,  and  the  stream  of  immi- 
gration from  them  which  now  pours  into  our  Northern 
States,  if  deflected  to  Cuba,  would  soon  supply  the  demand. 

If  good  government  be  established  in  Cuba,  it  will  un- 
doubtedly become  the  Riviera  of  the  western  hemisphere. 
For  natural  beauty,  picturesqueness,  geniality  of  climate, 
and  opportunities  for  rest,  amusement,  and  recreation,  its 
diversified  landscape,  mineral  springs,  and  surrounding  seas 
are  unequaled  by  those  of  southern  France  and  Italy. 
Here,  undoubtedly,  thousands  of  Americans  will  annually 
seek  winter  rest  and  recreation  when  peace  is  restored  and 
sanitation  established. 

It  may  seem  paradoxical  to  speak  of  the  advantages  of 
Cuba  as  a  health-resort  in  its  present  unsanitary  condition, 
but  we  feel  no  hesitancy  in  saying  that  for  the  overworked, 
debilitated  man  of  business,  or  one  whose  system  has  be- 


THE   FUTURE   OF  THE  ISLAND  143 

come  reduced,  the  climate  and  scenes  of  Cuba  will  work 
wonders ;  but  the  atmosphere  is  fatal  for  consumption  or 
other  pulmonary  complaints.  It  is  safe  to  visit  the  island 
after  December,  and  the  unacclimated  can  remain  even  until 
the  first  of  June,  although  in  May  it  is  very  hot,  and  fever 
appears  among  the  shipping. 

The  chief  advantage  to  us  of  the  liberation  of  Cuba  will  be 
the  benefits  which  will  accrue  to  our  commerce,  as  a  result  of 
the  removal  of  the  restrictions  upon  trade.  The  one-sided 
condition  which  now  exists,  whereby  we  purchase  nine 
tenths  of  the  products  of  the  island  and  sell  it  only  one 
quarter  of  its  food  and  manufactured  articles,  will  cease. 
The  lumber  of  our  Southern  seaboard,  the  foodstuffs  of 
the  Western  farmer,  and  the  manufactured  articles  of  the 
East,  will  find  increased  and  profitable  consumption. 
Under  any  possible  settlement  of  the  political  and  eco- 
nomical status  of  Cuba,  the  thirty  millions  of  annual  im- 
ports from  Spain  would  be  drawn,  for  the  most  part,  from 
the  United  States. 


SUPPLEMENTAL  NOTE   ON   THE   ISLE   OF  PINES 

The  principal  of  the  outlying  islands  considered  geo- 
graphically as  a  part  of  Cuba  is  the  Isle  of  Pines,  which 
is  situated  about  thirty-eight  miles  south  of  the  coast  of 
Pinar  del  Eio.  This  is  the  only  one  of  the  adjacent  islands 
which  is  not  merely  an  elevated  reef  or  mangrove  swamp, 
and  which  has  a  geologic  structure  and  configuration  com- 
parable to  the  mainland.  Its  area  of  1214  square  miles  is 
almost  equal  to  the  combined  area  of  the  other  thirteen 
hundred  islands  and  islets. 

The  island  is  circular  in  outline,  and  almost  divided  by 
a  bayou,  or  salty  depression,  into  two  divisions,  the  south- 
ernmost of  which  is  a  vast  cienaga,  occupied  only  by  a 
handful  of  fishermen.  The  main  portion  of  the  island  is 
diversified,  being  dominated  by  a  central  ridge  of  low 


144  CUBA  AND  POETO  BICO 

mountains  extending  from  east  to  west,  rising  to  two 
thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  Elsewhere  the  island  is  quite 
flat,  consisting  of  land  which  represents  a  coralline  plain 
recently  reclaimed  from  the  sea. 

Steamers  from  Batabano  run  to  Santa  Fe  and  Nueva 
Gerona.  The  latter  place  is  a  very  small  town  at  the  foot 
of  the  hills,  with  plains  of  palm-trees  in  its  neighborhood, 
the  town  itself  being  on  the  Eio  de  Serra  de  Casa,  some 
distance  from  its  mouth.  Santa  Fe,  which  is  the  chief 
place  of  resort  for  travelers,  is  a  miserable  congregation  of 
houses  on  the  banks  of  the  river  of  the  same  name,  some 
distance  from  its  mouth,  and  also  some  distance  from  the 
steamboat  landing.  This  landing  is  a  rough  wooden  wharf, 
from  which  carriages  and  stages  ply  to  Santa  Fe.  In  the 
immediate  neighborhood  of  Santa  Fe  there  are  beautiful 
drives  and  walks,  where  the  country  is  more  rolling  and 
even  hilly. 

The  climate  of  the  Isle  of  Pines  is  delightful ;  the  air  is 
pure,  dry,  and  balmy,  and  the  winds  coming  from  the  sea, 
passing  over  pine  forests,  are  gentle  and  invigorating. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  island  are  a  very  simple,  kind- 
hearted  set  of  people,  and  very  fond  of  a  chat  with  stran- 
gers, with  a  natural  dignity  of  manner  and  courteously 
hospitable  ways. 

For  many  years  a  large  penal  colony  has  been  maintained 
on  the  island,  consisting  mostly  of  Cuban  revolutionists. 


CASCADE  OF  PLAZA  DE  LAS  DELICIAS 


ISABEL  STREET 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE  ISLAND   OF.POKTO   RICO 

Situation  and  physical  features.  Configuration.  Outline.  Picturesque 
topography.  Drainage.  Abundance  of  rivers.  Flora  and  fauna. 
Geology.     Climate.     Hygiene  and  sanitation. 

OWING  to  current  interest,  the  normal  order  of  arrange- 
ment, which  would  lead  to  a  consideration  of  Santo 
Domingo,  wiU  not  be  followed,  but  Spain's  most  eastern 
Antillean  possession,  the  island  of  Porto  Rico,  will  next 
be  described.  This  has  justly  been  spoken  of  as  "  one  of 
the  most  lovely  of  all  those  regions  of  loveliness  which  are 
washed  by  the  Caribbean  Sea ;  even  in  that  archipelago  it 
is  distinguished  by  the  luxuriance  of  its  vegetation  and  the 
soft  variety  of  its  scenery."  Situated  at  the  eastern  extreme 
of  the  Antillean  chain,  a  thousand  miles  from  Havana,  it 
presents  many  strange  cojitrasts  to  Cuba.  Although  chil- 
dren of  the  same  mother,  the  Cuban  island,  so  varied 
in  relief,  configuration,  diversity  of  resources,  and  settle- 
ments, seems  continental  in  proportion  to  Porto  Rico, 
which  is  a  small  insular  microcosm,  only  one-twelfth  the 
area  of  the  former  island,  and  hardly  equal  in  dimensions 
to  its  smallest  province,  yet  six  times  more  densely  popu- 
lated. In  form  of  government,  and  in  the  character  and 
condition  of  the  people,  there  are  even  stronger  contrasts 
between  these  countries,  one  being  a  despotically  ruled 
colony,  whose  children  despise  the  race  from  which  they 

10  145 


146  CUBA   AND   POKTO   RICO 

sprang ;  the  other  an  integral  part  of  Spain,  whose  people 
rejoice  in  the  name  of  Spaniards.  The  Cubans  are  fired 
with  the  spirit  of 'progress  and  infected  with  American 
notions,  while  the  Porto  Ricans  are  plodding  along  in  con- 
tentment, without  permitting  serious  thoughts  of  revolu- 
tion to  bring  insomnia  to  a  Utopian  land  where  sleepiness 
is  not  a  crime.^ 

Porto  Rico  is  the  smallest  and  most  eastern  of  the  Grreat 
Antilles;  at  the  same  time,  the  most  productive  in  pro- 
portion to  area,  the  most  densely  settled,  and  the  most 
established  in  its  customs  and  institutions.  It  is  also 
notable  among  the  West  Indian  group  for  the  reason  that 
its  preponderant  population  is  of  the  white  race,  and  that 
it  produces  sufficient  foodstuffs  to  supply  its  inhabitants,, 
as  weU  as  some  of  the  neighboring  islands. 

Although  it  nowhere  attains  the  great  altitudes  of  the 
other  Antilles,  the  island  is  practically  the  eastward  con- 
tinuation of  the  Antillean  chain  of  uplifts.  It  rises  from 
the  shallow  submerged  bank  which  borders  it  for  a  few~ 
miles,  and  which  is  a  continuation  of  that  of  the  other  An- 
tilles. Thus,  with  the  surface  of  the  island,  it  is  the  upward 
extension  of  the  remarkable  slope  which,  at  least  on  the 
north  side,  descends  nearly  thirty  thousand  feet  to  the 
bottom  of  the  Brownson  Deep,  until  recently  supposed  to 
be  the  deepest  hole  in  the  world. 

Its  outline  presents  the  appearance  of  an  almost  geo- 
metrically regular  parallelogram,  nearly  three  times  longer 
than  broad,  with  its  foui*  sides  following  the  four  cardinal 
directions.  The  sea-line,  unlike  that  of  Cuba,  is  perfectly 
straight,  and  the  coast  is  usually  low,  especially  on  the 
southern  side,  although  there  are  a  few  headlands.  It  is 
also  void  of  fringing  keys  or  deep  indentations  of  its  coast, 
such  as  border  the  island  of  Cuba. 

Porto  Rico  is  the  smallest  of  the  four  Great  Antilles^ 
Jamaica  exceeding  it  in  size  by  500  square  miles.  It  is  95 
miles  long,  35  miles  wide,  and  has  an  area  of  3668  square 

^  Since  this  was  written  the  Americans  have  carried  liberty  to  the  island. 


THE   ISLAND    OF   PORTO   KICO  147 

miles.  Tlie  coast-line  is  about  360  miles  in  length.  Its 
area  is  300  square  miles  gi'eater  than  that  of  Delaware, 
Rhode  Island,  and  the  District  of  Columbia  combined,  and 
800  less  than  that  of  Connecticut. 

The  general  aspect  of  the  island  is  that  of  a  picturesque, 
hilly  landscape.  Its  beautiful  and  fertile  plains,  the  abun- 
dance of  gently  flowing  streams,  the  variety  of  vegetation, 
including  palms  which  elevate  theii'  fronds  above  the  lower 
stratum  of  evergreen,  the  bright  patches  of  cultivated  fields, 
the  clear  skies,  mild  temperatui'e,  and  invigorating  winds, 
give  to  the  country  a  very  engaging  aspect.  -^ 

The  configuration  of  the  land  is  that  of  a  low  central    v 
mountain  range  extending  through  its  greatest  length,      \ 
with  low  and  broken  slopes.     These  mountains,  which  are      ) 
a  continuation  of  the  Great  Antillean  uplifts  pre\dously    / 
described,  extend  from  the  western  cape,  Cadena,  near  San    y 
Geiman,  to  the  northeast  corner  of  the  island.     Their  cul-  f 
mination  is  found  toward  the  east  end.     Their  highest  V 
peak,  3609  feet  in  altitude,  is  the  Yunque  of  the  Sierra 
LuquiUo.    The  lateral  extension  of  these  mountains  toward 
the  south  coast  is  here  known  as  the  SieiTa  de  Cayey. 
The  westward  ramifications  of  the  system  have  various 
names.   Near  San  German  there  are  some  notable  summits 
known  as  the  Tetas  de  Montero.     On  the  higher  portions 
of  the  sierras  are  remnants  of  the  virgin  forests  which  once 
clad  the  entire  island,  and,  no  doubt,  stiU  constitute  an 
important  factor  in  controlling  the   magnificent  water- 
courses which  drain  them.    The  slopes  are  gently  rolling 
divides  until  they  approach  the  littoral,  where  they  are 
superseded  by  wide  and  beautiful  plains,  well  drained  and 
void  of  extensive  marshlands. 

Apart  from  the  natural  wealth  of  her  soil,  Porto  Rico 
has  the  additional  advantage  of  being  well  supplied  with 
water,  which  is  generally  scarce  in  the  islands  to  the  east- 
ward, many  of  which  are  destitute  of  springs. 

The  northern  district  is  moist,  subject  not  only  to  the 
periodical  rains  of  the  West  Indies,  but  also  visited  by  oc- 


148  CUBA   AND    PORTO   RICO 

casional  showers.  Hence  its  undulating  surface  is  adapted 
to  pasture  and  the  more  ordinary  kinds  of  cultivation,  and 
is  intersected  by  numerous  perennial  rivers;  while  the 
southern  part  of  the  island  is  frequently  without  rain  for 
many  months,  though  even  there  water  is  always  found 
half  a  yard  beneath  the  surface. 

Porto  Rico's  rivers  have  been  among  the  agencies  which 
have  contributed  most  to  her  growth  in  wealth.  There 
are  more  than  twelve  hundred  streams,  the  principal  of 
which  are  the  Loiza  or  Rio  Grande,  Bayamon,  Plata, 
Cibuco,  Manati,  Arecibo,  Camuy,  and  Gruajataca,  which 
flow  to  the  north,  and  the  Culebrinas,  Anasco,  Guanajibo, 
and  Mayaguez,  flowing  to  the  west ;  the  Portuges,  Jacaguas, 
Descalabrado,  Coamo,  Guamani,  andGuayanes,  to  the  south, 
and  the  Humacao,  Naguabo,  and  Fajardo,  to  the  east.  Some 
of  these  are  navigable  for  small  vessels  for  a  distance  of  two 
or  three  leagues,  but  have  troublesome  bars  across  their 
mouths.  The  facilities  for  internal  navigation,  for  driving 
machinery  by  water-  and  steam-power,  and  for  irrigation 
are  not  common  on  islands  of  this  size.  There  is  an  almost 
total  absence  of  the  stagnant  water  which  so  often  vitiates 
the  atmosphere  of  tropical  countries. 

The  island  contains  eight  small  lakes,  which  are  known 
as  Martinpena,  Tortuguero,  Pinoiies,  and  Cano  Tiburones, 
on  the  north  side ;  Albuf era  de  Joyuda,  on  the  east ;  Fla- 
mencos, Cienaga,  and  Guanica,  on  the  south. 

Notwithstanding  the  normally  peaceful  conditions  which 
have  prevailed  in  this  island,  there  has  been  little  or  no  sys- 
tematic exploration  of  it.  There  is  no  record  of  any  topo- 
graphic or  geological  survey  by  which  either  the  details 
of  its  relief  or  its  exact  area  is  known.  Neither  has  its 
geology,  flora,  or  fauna  been  systematically  studied.  As 
remarked  by  a  writer  sixty  years  ago,  the  island  is  less 
known  in  this  country  than  even  Japan  or  Madagascar. 
This  fact  is  not  due  to  inaccessibility  or  difficulty  of 
exploration,  for  hundreds  of  intelligent  people  visit  it 
yearly,  but  merely  to  the  fact  that  few  have  taken  the 


THE  ISLAND    OF   PORTO   EICO  149 

trouble  to  record  their  observations.  The  sum  total  of 
the  scientific  literature  of  the  island  since  the  days  of 
Humboldt  would  hardly  fill  a  page  of  this  book. 

Porto  Rico  has  long  been  famous  for  the  beauty  of  its 
flora ;  but  little  study  has  been  made  of  it.  The  island  is 
especially  noted  for  the  number  and  size  of  its  trees,  par- 
ticularly those  of  the  forests  of  the  higher  regions,  which 
still  persist  in  their  primeval  grandeur,  the  forestry  regula- 
tions having  been  more  wisely  observed  than  elsewhere  in 
the  West  Indies.  These  forests,  which  in  a  general  man- 
ner resemble  those  of  the  other  islands,  are  largely  desti- 
tute of  epiphytes  and  other  parasitic  vegetation,  such  as 
ordinarily  mantle  the  tropical  trees,  except  orchids. 

Among  the  notable  trees  mentioned  by  Eggers  are  sev- 
eral species  of  palms  (Euterpe) ;  a  beautiful  tillandsia,  with 
immense  odorous  flowers  and  silvery  leaves,  its  wood, 
called  sabrinOj  being  used  for  timber ;  a  hirtella,  with  crim- 
son flowers ;  an  unknown  species  with  beautiful  orange- 
like foliage  and  purple  flowers;  a  tall  lobelia;  and  a 
large  heliconia.  The  tree-ferns  are  also  represented  by  two 
species.  Another  conspicuous  tree  forming  extensive 
woods  is  the  Cocoloha  macrophylla,  with  immense  purple 
spikes  more  than  a  yard  long.  A  hard  wood  called  ausubo 
is  common  upon  the  island,  which  is  much  used  for  the 
construction  of  building-frames.  Hard  and  soft  Spanish 
cedar,  ebony,  and  the  West  Indian  sandalwood— the  non- 
fragrant  kind  commonly  used  for  making  the  backs  of  hair- 
brushes—are common.  There  are  also  many  other  excel- 
lent woods  for  construction,  locally  known  as  capo  blanca, 
capo  prieto,  laurel,  willow,  guyacan,  ucar,  espeguelo,  moca, 
maricao,  ortegon,  tachuelo,  cedro,  cojoba,  acetillo,  gura- 
guao,  algarrobo,  maga,  yaiti,  palo  santo,  tortuguillo,  zerre- 
zuele,  and  guyarote. 

The  natives  enumerate  over  twenty-eight  medicinal 
plants;  a  dozen  which  are  used  for  condiments;  twelve 
useful  for  dyes  and  tanning;  eight  resinous  trees;  and 
many  large  trees  which  have  edible  fruits,  such  as  pines  in 


150  CUBA  AND   PORTO  RICO 

various  classes,  the  cocos,  the  aguacate,  oranges,  lemons, 
mango,  and  mamey. 

There  is  a  great  deficiency  of  native  animals  of  every 
sort,  and  especially  the  entire  absence  (if  our  authority 
can  be  credited)  of  those  noxious  reptiles  and  insects 
which  seem  to  inhabit  some  of  the  West  Indies  as  their 
peculiar  possession.  The  island  is  singularly  free  from 
native  mammals,  with  the  exception  of  a  single  species 
of  agouti,  although  domestic  species,  when  introduced,  have 
flourished.  In  the  mountains  are  many  birds,  including 
doves  and  seven  other  small  species ;  flamingos  and  other 
water-birds  are  numerous  along  the  coast. 

There  are  several  species  of  fish  in  the  fresh  water, 
locally  known  by  the  names  of  liza,  robalo,  dajau,  and 
guavina.  The  most  interesting  thing  of  the  Porto  Rican 
land  fauna  is  the  gigantic  tortoise,  differing  only  in  size 
from  the  land-turtle  still  found  on  the  island  of  Trinidad 
and  adjoining  parts  of  South  America.  It  is  closely  allied 
to  the  large  tortoise  of  the  Galapagos  and  Mascarene 
Islands,  and  to  the  fossil  land-turtles  found  in  Sombrero 
and  Barbuda. 

The  only  geological  observations  upon  the  island  are 
those  which  have  been  made  by  P.  T.  Cleve,  a  Swedish 
naturalist.  According  to  him,  the  hills  along  the  northern 
coast  are  fragments  of  a  very  thick  series  of  limestone 
strata  which  has  been  cut  through  by  rivulets  and  by 
denudation.  These  are  very  little  inclined,  and  dip  from 
the  axis  of  the  island  to  the  sea  at  a  very  low  angle.  The 
summits  of  the  high  mountains  are  still  covered  by  the 
Antillean  limestone  formations.  Near  San  Juan  this  cov- 
ering is  soft.  In  most  places  it  is  very  hard,  and  yellowish 
white  in  color.  These  limestones  contain  fossils  which 
show  them  to  be  identical  in  age  with  the  Tertiary  rocks 
of  the  other  Antilles.  Below  these  limestones  there  is  an 
older  formation  visible  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  the  in- 
terior. This  consists  of  conglomerates  and  metamorphic 
rock,  very  similar  to  the  older  rocks  of  Jamaica  (the  Blue 


THE  ISLAND   OF  PORTO   RICO  151 

Mountain  series)  and  of  the  Virgin  Islands,  of  which  they 
are  probably  an  extension. 

It  is  probable  that  the  rocks  of  the  littoral  are  composed 
in  part  of  elevated  coral  reef,  or  seborucco,  so  common  on 
the  other  Antillean  lands,  but  this  has  not  been  positively 
determined.  Great  living  reefs  abound  on  the  eastern  sub- 
merged platfoim  along  the  south  coast  of  the  island,  about 
four  miles  offshore. 

According  to  Cleve,  gold  is  found  in  loose  pieces  in  the 
rivers  of  Sierra  Luquillo  and  Corazal,  and  mercury  in  the 
Eio  Grande.  Gold  was  formerly  mined  by  the  early  Span- 
ish settlers,  being  found  in  placer  deposits.  Its  quantity  or 
occurrence  cannot  be  definitely  stated  at  present.  Molyb- 
dena,  magnetic  pyrite,  manganite,  limonite,  chrysocoUa, 
epidote,  and  garnet  are  the  minor  minerals  found.  Specu- 
lar iron  is  reported  in  several  places,  notably  on  the  Rio 
Cuyul.  Magnetic  iron  ore  is  also  reported  from  Gurabo 
and  Ciales.  Large,  fine  crystals  of  quartz  are  found  in  the 
Rio  Prieto ;  agate  of  good  quality  at  Kaja  de  Muestos,  and 
malachite  at  Rio  Blanco.  Don  Pedro  Resano  in  San  Juan 
has  a  very  fine  collection  of  the  minerals  of  the  island,  the 
specimens  of  which  would  indicate  that  a  thorough  geologi- 
cal survey  of  the  island  might  be  profitable. 

Among  the  natural  features  of  interest  in  the  island  are 
the  cave  of  Aguas-Buenas,  in  the  village  of  the  same  name ; 
the  gi'and  cave  of  Pajita  Inlares ;  the  cave  of  Muertos  in 
Utuado ;  the  cascade  of  Santa  Alalia  in  Bayamon ;  and  the 
salines  of  the  Cacique  in  Guanica.  There  are  also  many 
thermal  and  mineral  waters,  such  as  the  warm  springs  of 
Coamo,  Quintana,  and  others. 

In  a  mountain  near  the  center  of  the  village  of  Harmi- 
gueros  is  the  shrine  of  Montserrat,  which  was  formerly 
much  visited  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  island,  and  many 
from  St.  Thomas,  Santa  Cruz,  Dominica,  Guadeloupe, 
Curasao,  and  Martinique. 

Travelers  claim  that  the  climate  of  Porto  Rico,  although . 
warm,  is  more  agreeable  and  healthful  than  that  of  any  of 


152  CUBA   AND   PORTO  RICO 

the  other  Antilles.  The  average  daily  temperatui'e  is  80°  F., 
but  it  is  ameliorated  by  a  cooling  north  breeze  which  gen- 
erally prevails  during  the  hottest  days.  The  mean  monthly 
temperature  of  San  Juan,  as  determined  by  observations 
extending  through  twenty  years,  is  78.9°  F.  The  maximum 
heat,  attained  only  three  times  during  this  period,  was  99°, 
the  minimum  57.2°.  The  thermometer  usually  rises  to 
88°  F.  at  midday,  and  sinks  to  80.6°  F.  at  night.  In  the 
cool  mornings  it  ordinarily  stands  at  69.8°  F.,  but  some- 
times falls  as  low  as  60.8°  F.  The  interior  highlands 
are  cooler,  and  the  nights  are  sometimes  disagreeably  so, 
although  snow  never  falls,  and  hail  but  rarely.  The  cool- 
est places  on  the  island  are  Adjuntas,  Aibonito,  Cayey, 
Utuado,  Lares,  and  Maricao. 

The  hottest  months  are  June,  July,  August,  and  Septem- 
ber ;  the  coolest,  December,  January,  and  February.  So  far 
as  temperature  is  concerned,  Porto  Rico  enjoys  perpetual 
summer,  the  mean  monthly  temperature  hardly  vaning 
6°  throughout  the  year,  and  the  extreme  limits  being 
within  40°  of  each  other,  instead  of  118°  as  at  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. 

The  disagi'eeable  land  winds  are  seldom  felt,  though  tropi- 
cal hurricanes  are  frequent  between  July  and  October.  The 
forest-covered  central  mountains  produce  a  marked  differ- 
ence in  the  climate  between  the  opposite  declivities.  The 
northern  side  is  frequently  visited  by  showers,  while  the 
southern  district  is  often  without  rain  for  months  at  a  time. 

The  average  rainfall  for  the  past  twenty  years  has  been 
59.5  inches,  or  about  the  same  as  that  of  New  Orleans,  and 
only  six  inches  less  than  that  of  Washington  city.  The 
driest  month  is  February,  when  less  than  two  inches  fall. 
January  and  March  have  less  than  three  inches,  December 
less  than  four.  The  remaining  months,  from  April  to 
November  inclusive,  have  over  five  inches  of  rainfall,  the 
gi'eatest  quantity  of  the  year,  7.62  inches,  being  precipitated 
in  the  latter  month. 

It  rains  very  hard  and  abundantly  during  the  hottest 


THE   ISLAND   OF   PORTO   RICO  153 

months.  This  precipitation  comes  in  heavy  gusts  with 
strong  winds,  as  a  rule  between  noon  and  4  p.  m.  An 
hour  later  the  skies  appear  in  beautiful  colors  of  gold, 
violet,  purple,  and  blue.  A  bright,  cool  starlight  night 
usually  follows.     It  seldom  rains  or  thunders  at  night. 

Toward  the  end  of  October,  east  and  north  winds  set  in. 
The  first  brings  heavy  downpours,  and  the  latter  gentle 
showers,  though  the  south  side  of  the  island  is  subject  to 
great  droughts,  to  the  detriment  of  agriculture.  The  great 
quantity  of  rainfall  is  very  favorable  to  vegetation,  and 
creates  an  infinite  number  of  springs,  brooks,  and  rivers. 

Although  the  climate  of  Porto  Eico  does  not  appear  to 
differ  materially,  as  far  as  its  effects  can  be  measured  by 
instruments,  from  that  of  the  other  Antillean  Islands,  yet 
its  inhabitants  certainly  seem  to  enjoy  a  more  than 
ordinary  exemption  from  the  evils  which  afflict  humanity 
in  these  sickly  regions.  The  mortality,  according  to  the 
published  tables,  does  not  exceed  that  which  prevails  in 
some  of  the  more  healthful  countries  of  Europe. 

The  hot  and  moist  climate  induces  dysenteries  and  fevers 
of  all  kinds,  especially  intermittent  and  lingering  forms 
which  are  very  stubborn  and  sometimes  lead  to  liver  com- 
plications. Yellow  fever  occasionally  visits  the  cities  of 
the  coast,  but  mostly  in  individual  cases,  and  is  not  always 
epidemic.  Only  in  certain  years,  at  times  of  great  heat, 
does  it  flourish,  and  even  then  it  principally  affects  Euro- 
peans and  newcomers.  Its  occurrence  is  probably  encour- 
aged by  the  stagnant  sewage  of  the  cities.  The  natives  are 
subject  to  colds,  catarrhs,  consumption,  and  bronchitis. 

The  best  season  to  visit  Porto  Rico  and  make  the 
acquaintance  of  the  people  and  country  is  in  the  months 
of  January,  February,  March,  and  April. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

HISTOKY  AND  ADMINISTEATION 

Spanish  character  of  its  institutions  and  peoples.  Uneventful  course  of 
its  progress.'  Government  and  administration.  ReUgion  and  educa- 
tion. 

THE  island  belongs  to  Spain/  to  which  country  it  is 
indebted  for  its  discovery  and  conquest  and  present 
industrial  and  social  status.  It  was  discovered  on  Novem- 
ber 16, 1493,  by  Columbus,  who  took  possession  three  days 
later.  The  conquest  of  the  island  from  the  aborigines 
was  made  in  1508  by  Ponce  de  Leon,  who  founded,  in  the 
year  1509,  the  first  village,  near  the  present  capital,  which 
he  named  Caparra. 

According  to  Colonel  Elinter,  who  seems  to  have  written 
the  best  compendium  of  the  island,  the  early  history  of 
Porto  Eico,  aside  from  a  few  attacks  by  English  bucaneers, 
offers  few  features  of  interest.  Although  one  of  the  oldest 
colonies  of  Spain,  it  served  for  three  centuries  as  a  penal 
station  only,  and  its  free  population  presented  until  a  few 
years  ago  a  marked  specimen  of  the  besotted  ignorance 
which  characterized  the  Spanish  settlements  of  old  times. 

The  military  and  civil  expenses  during  these  years  were 
defrayed  from  remittances  from  Mexico,  and  it  was  not 

1  This  was  written  before  the  signing  of  the  protocol  which  gave  it  to  the 
United  States. 

154 


V 


HISTORY  AND   ADMINISMflATION  155 

until  the  revolution  cut  off  these  remittances,  in  1810,  that 
the  island,  owing  to  the  extreme  embarraigjd^nt  of  its  finan- 
cial condition,  began  to  attract  the  notice  of  the  mother- 
country.  Previous  to  that  time,  Spain  paid  but  little 
attention  to  her  West  Indian  possessions,  except  as  water- 
ing-stations for  sailing-ships.  Not  being  outwardly  valu- 
able, it  attracted  little  attention,  and  suffered  less  from  ill 
government  than  Cuba,  for  instance ;  the  result  being  that 
the  island  remained  loyal  to  the  home  country. 

In  1815  a  decree  was  published  in  its  behalf,  distin- 
guished, like  many  of  the  early  acts  of  the  restored  gov- 
ernment, by  its  enlightened  sagacity.  This  decree,  while 
it  greatly  encouraged  free  industries,  unfortunately  gave 
an  impetus  to  the  employment  of  slave  labor,  which  had 
heretofore  not  been  used — not  from  motives  of  humanity, 
but  from  want  of  capital  and  the  indolence  and  poverty  of 
the  previous  settlers,  who  were  somewhat  comparable  to 
the  lower  white  element  of  our  own  colonial  times.  Under 
this  decree,  colonists  were  invited  to  the  island  on  the  most 
liberal  terms.  Lands  were  allotted  gratis ;  the  settlers  were 
free  from  direct  taxes,  and  for  a  certain  number  of  years 
from  the  tithes  and  alcaiala,  as  well  as  from  the  exporta- 
tion duties  which  formed  at  that  time  the  most  impolitic 
featiye  of  the  old  Spanish  system.*  From  the  period  of 
this  decree  the  prosperity  of  Porto  Eico  began,  and  from 
then  until  now  the  advance  in  wealth  and  population  has 
been  unexampled  even  in  the  West  Indies.  A  great  im- 
pulse was  also  given  in  these  early  years  of  the  present  cen- 
tury by  the  arrival  of  Spanish  capitalists  driven  from  Santo 
Domingo  and  the  Spanish  Main— men  distinguished  in  the 
more  prosperous  times  of  South  America  for  their  regular- 
ity and  probity  in  the  transaction  of  business. 

In  1870  Porto  Rico  was  made  a  province  of  Spain, 
instead  of  a  colony,  thereby  acquiring  the  same  rights  and 
government  as  existed  in  the  mother-country,  with  repre- 
sentation in  the  Cortes,  elected  by  universal  suffrage.  The 
indisposition  to  political  upheavals  has  been  as  conducive 


156  CUBA    AND   PORTO   RICO 

to  the  remarkable  prosperity  of  the  island  as  the  excellent 
climate  and  soil.  The  government  has  been  generally 
placid  and  tranquil. 

The  supreme  local  authority  is  vested  in  a  governor- 
general,  also  designated  as  military  governor.  For  the 
government  of  the  troops  he  has  one  deputy  or  military 
governor.  There  is  also  a  diputacion  provincial^  or  elective 
council,  which  constituted  a  kind  of  consultative  body  con- 
cerning the  welfare  of  the  island.  A  naval  commandant, 
who  is  attached  to  the  department  of  Havana,  resides  in 
San  Juan;  and  there  are  various  captains  of  the  ports. 
The  ordinary  military  forces  of  the  island  consist  of  three 
battalions  of  infantry,  one  of  artillery  with  two  mounted 
sections,  fourteen  battalions  of  volunteers,  and  four  of  the 
guardia  civil,  or  military  police. 

There  are  four  courts — the  territorial  or  supreme  court, 
and  three  criminal  courts,  one  each  in  San  Juan,  Mayaguez, 
and  Ponce.  There  are  also  various  minor  justices ;  each 
department  has  a  military  commandant,  and  each  village 
an  alcalde,  representing  the  government.  There  is  also  an 
intendant-general  of  hacienda,  and  a  central  administra- 
tion for  collecting  taxes. 

For  administrative  purposes  the  island  is  divided  into 
seven  departments,  including  seventy  villages.  These 
departments,  named  for  the  chief  city  of  each,  and  their 
population,  are  as  follows:  Bayamon,  131,116;  Arecibo, 
124,835;  Aguadilla,  86,551;  Ponce,  160,140;  Guayama, 
98,814;   Humacao,  82,251;  Mayaguez,  116,982. 

In  1897,  when  the  so-called  system  of  autonomy  was 
offered  to  Cuba,  Porto  Rico  received  the  same.  Under  it, 
the  island  has  a  premier  and  House  of  Eepresentatives,  and 
the  other  forms  of  a  republican  government,  but  they  are 
all  in  the  hands  of  a  Spanish  oligarchy,  which  controlled 
the  island  when  it  was  still  a  colony. 

The  official  religion  of  the  island  is  the  Roman  Catholic, 
but  others  are  tolerated;  there  is  one  Protestant  church 
in  Ponce,  and  one  each  in  a  few  of  the  smaller  towns. 


HISTORY   AND   ADMINISTRATION  157 

The  bishopric  of  Porto  Rico  was  founded  in  1504  under 
Pope  Julian  II,  and  was  the  first  to  be  established  in  the 
New  World.  The  diocese  of  the  island  is  divided  into 
many  vicarages,  with  a  multitude  of  curates.  There  is 
one  bishop,  attached  to  the  archbishopric  of  Cuba;  the 
patronage  of  the  diocese  is  conferred  by  the  governor- 
general. 

According  to  the  Spanish  standard,  the  condition  of 
public  instruction  in  the  island  is  flourishing.  From  an 
American  standpoint,  judging  from  the  illiteracy  of  the 
inhabitants,  it  is  poor.  The  instruction  is  divided  into 
primary,  secondary,  and  superior.  There  are  eight  of  the 
superior  schools  for  boys,  four  for  girls,  and  many  of  the 
elementary  classes  throughout  the  cities  and  rural  districts ; 
there  are  also  many  private  schools  and  seminaries,  while 
in  San  Juan  there  is  a  college  where  courses  are  given  in 
medicine  and  law,  and  a  normal  school  for  both  sexes.  Of 
the  people,  three  hundred  thousand  can  neither  read  nor 
write ;  illiteracy  is  greatest  among  the  women.  A  native 
writer  says  that  "Porto  Rico  has  literarians,  but  no  lit- 
erature." 

In  1894  there  were  thirty-five  newspapers  and  periodicals 
on  the  island,  seventeen  of  which  were  in  San  Juan,  seven 
in  Ponce,  and  eight  in  Mayaguez. 


CHAPTEE  XVII 

TRANSPOKTATION,  AGEICULTUEE,  INDUSTRY,  AND  COMMERCE 

Harbors.  Railways.  Highways.  Telegraph.  Diversified  nature  of  the 
agriculture.  Large  number  of  small  farms.  Sugar-estates.  Coffee- 
culture.  Menores.  Importance  of  the  cattle  industry.  Commerce 
and  trade.     Bad  condition  of  the  currency. 

THE  harbors  of  Porto  Rico  are  inferior  to  those  of 
Cuba,  but,  locally  considered,  are  good  except  for  a  part 
of  the  year.  In  November,  December,  and  January,  those 
of  the  north  coast,  with  the  exception  of  San  Juan,  are 
dangerous  on  account  of  the  north  winds.  On  the  other 
hand,  during  the  months  from  June  to  November,  strong 
southerly  winds  cause  the  sea  to  break  with  great  violence 
over  the  anchorage  on  the  southern  coast. 

The  principal  ports  of  the  island  are  San  Juan,  on  the 
north;  Fajardo  and  Ensenada  Honda,  on  the  east^  Ponce 
and  Guanica,  on  the  south ;  and  Puerto  Real  de  Cabo  Rojo, 
on  the  west.  Playa,  near  Ponce,  is  the  largest  and  best 
port  on  the  island.  There  are  various  other  small  ports  of 
more  or  less  importance,  which  need  not  be  mentioned  in 
detail  at  present. 

Of  late  years,  some  attempts  have  been  made  to  improve 
the  harbor  of  San  Juan.  Dredging  was  begun  in  1889,  and 
reported  to  be  carried  on  as  fast  as  material  would  permit. 
The  entrance  to  the  channel  has  been  widened  and  deep- 
ened to  twenty-nine  and  one  half  feet,  and  now  there  is 
over  twenty-two  feet  of  water  along  the  wharves.     This 

158 


TRANSPOKTATION   AND  AGKICULTURE  159 

work  was  done  by  prison  labor,  the  laborers  getting  four 
and  one  half  pence  per  day. 

The  island  has  more  or  less  regular  communication  by 
vessels  with  Spain,  England,  Cuba,  Santo  Domingo,  St. 
Thomas,  Martinique,  Gruadeloupe,  and  South  America. 
Moreover,  two  lines  of  steamers  circumnavigate  it,  stopping 
at  the  various  ports. 

Probably  no  part  of  the  Antilles  is  more  fertile  than 
Porto  Rico,  and  none  so  generally  susceptible  of  cultiva- 
tion and  diversified  farming.  A  single  acre  of  cane  yields 
more  sugar  there  than  in  any  other  of  the  islands  except 
Cuba,  Possessing  every  variety  of  tropical  landscape, 
fertile  from  the  mountain-tops  to  the  sea,  rich  in  pasture- 
lands,  shaded  with  beautiful  groves  of  magnificent  palms, 
moistened  by  thirteen  hundred  streams,  with  here  and  there 
a  hot  spring,  its  agricultural  possibilities  are  immense. 

Porto  Rico  is  essentially  the  land  of  the  farmer,  and  the 
most  highly  cultivated  of  the  West  Indies.  In  fact,  it  is 
the  only  island  where  agriculture  is  so  diversified  that  it 
produces  sufficient  food  for  the  consumption  of  its  inhabi- 
tants, in  addition  to  vast  plantation  crops  of  sugar  and 
coffee  for  exportation.  Furthermore,  the  land  is  not  mo- 
nopolized by  large  plantations,  but  mostly  divided  into 
small  independent  holdings.  Stock-raising  is  also  an 
extensive  industry. 

There  are  in  Porto  Rico  some  twenty-one  thousand 
smaller  holdings,  the  property  of  the  peasantry  of  the  in- 
terior, who  live  cheaply  and  work  lazily,  but  contrive  to 
raise  a  small  quantity  of  sugar,  together  with  provisions 
and  cattle.  If  such  rough  cultivation  as  this  succeeds  at 
all,  it  can  only  be  in  consequence  of  the  vast  productive- 
ness of  the  soil,  which  gives  the  planter  the  same  advan- 
tage over  his  brethren  to  windward  and  leeward  as  the 
settler  of  Illinois  has  over  the  cultivator  of  the  worn-out 
"  old  fields  "  of  the  Atlantic  coast. 

The  agricultural  properties  of  the  island,  according  to  the 
last  census,  were  distributed  as  follows :  tobacco-farms,  66 ; 


160  CUBA   AND   POETO   RICO 

cattle-farms,  240;  large  coffee-estates,  361;  sugar-estates, 
433 ;  small  coffee-farms,  4184 ;  farms  devoted  to  miscellane- 
ous cultivation,  4376 ;  small  fruit-farms,  16,988 ;  and  plants 
for  grinding  cane,  8. 

,  The  export  productions  are  sugar-cane,  coffee,  tobacco, 
cocoa,  and  cotton.  Sugar-cane  is  cultivated  mostly  on  the 
lower  slopes  and  plains,  yielding  about  six  thousand  pounds 
to  the  acre.  Coffee  grows  in  the  highlands,  in  the  natural 
shade  of  the  mountains  or  in  that  of  the  guama-,i  guava-,^ 
bucare-,^  and  maga*-trees.  Owing  to  the  troubled  state  of 
affairs  in  Cuba,  prices  for  tobacco  have  increased  enor- 
mously in  Porto  Rico.  A  large  amount  has  been  planted, 
and  the  crop  promises  well. 

A  peculiar  variety  of  upland  rice,  requiring  no  form  of 
irrigation  or  inundation,  is  commonly  cultivated  on  the 
hills  of  the  central  sierra.  This,  and  yauchia  {Caladmm 
esculentum)  and  plantain,  which  are  grown  nearly  every- 
where, are  staple  foods  of  laborers.  The  other  fruits  and 
vegetables  consumed  on  the  island,  and  generally  classified 
as  menares,  are  the  banana,  platanos  (plantains,  which, 
when  baked  in  the  immature  state,  constitute  the  bread  of 
the  inhabitants),  maize,  beans,  gaudures,  and  such  fruits  or 
vegetables  as  yams,  yautias,  sweet  potatoes,  the  mispel 
{Achras  sapota),  the  mango,  the  mamey  {Mammea),  the 
guanavana  (Anona),  the  aguacate  (Persea),  pineapples,  and 
guayavas  (which  are  very  plentiful,  and  manufactured  into 
confections). 

-  The  diversified  agriculture  of  Porto  Rico  is  also  varied 
by  extensive  pastoral  interests,  which  not  only  supply  the 
inhabitants  with  meat,  but  produce  hundreds  of  cattle  of 
excellent  quality  for  annual  export,  especially  to  the  Lesser 
Antilles,  which  are  largely  dependent  upon  Porto  Rico  for 
meat  as  well  as  for  work-oxen.  Martinique,  Guadeloupe, 
St.  Thomas,  and  Cuba  are  the  chief  consumers.  The  pas- 
ture-lands are  superior  to  those  of  the  other  Antilles. 
These  lie  mostly  on  the  north  and  east  sides  of  the  island, 
and  are  covered  with  a  nutritious  leguminous  plant  called 

1  Inga  laurinea.        ^  Inga  vera.      '  Erythrina  bticare.     *  TJiespesia  grand{ftora. 


TEANSPOKTATION  AND   AGKICULTUEE 


161 


malahojilla  {HymenacMne  striatum),  which  the  cattle  con- 
sume. 

Small  but  hardy  horses  are  also  common.  Some  efforts 
have  been  made  to  improve  them  by  the  introduction  of 
American  breeds.  The  smaller  domestic  animals  also 
abound,  especially  poultry. 

The  principal  agricultural  exports  in  1896,  according  to 
the  British  consul,  were: 


AKTICLE8. 

QUANTITY. 

ABTICLES. 

QUANTITY. 

Sugar  tons.. 

Coffee  "    .. 

Hides "    .. 

Cattle head.. 

54,205 

26,655 

169 

3,178 

Timber tons . . 

Molasses "    . . 

Tobacco "    . . 

30 

14,740 

1,039 

There  are  one  hundred  and  thirty-seven  English  miles 
of  railroad  in  operation,  besides  one  hundred  and  seventy 
miles  under  construction.  A  contract  was  made  in  1888  to 
encircle  the  island  with  a  railroad.  A  Spanish  company 
was  formed  in  Madrid,  and  the  government  guaranteed 
eight  per  cent,  on  the  capital  for  six  years,  the  capital  not 
to  exceed  two  million  pounds.  The  length  of  the  road  was 
to  be  two  hundred  and  eighty-three  miles.  One  hundred 
and  nineteen  miles  were  built  by  1892,  but  little  has  been 
done  since,  and  the  government  refused  to  renew  the  con- 
tract. Among  the  lines  in  operation  are  those  from  San 
Juan  to  La  Carolina,  14  miles ;  from  San  Juan  to  Camuy, 
61.5  miles ;  from  Aguadilla  to  Mayaguez,  14^  miles ;  and 
from  Yauco  to  Ponce,  20.5  miles. 

One  may  travel  by  highways  with  a  fair  amount  of  com- 
fort all  over  the  island.  The  Spaniards  generally  are  poor 
road-builders,  but  in  this  island  have  done  better  than  in 
Cuba.  Many  of  the  roads,  in  fact,  are  excellent.  The 
towns  are  connected  by  highways  which  develop  around 
the  peripheries  of  the  island  quadrilateral.  There  is  also 
a  second  quadrilateral  system,  which  is  united  at  intervals 
with  the  outer  system  by  transverse  routes. 


162 


CUBA  AND  PORTO  RICO 


There  are  four  hundred  and  seventy  miles  of  telegraph 
line  under  government  control,  and  the  principal  cities  have 
telephone  service. 

The  trade  of  Porto  Rico  with  other  countries  of  impor- 
tance is  about  a  sixth  of  that  of  Cuba.  In  1895  (according 
to  the  "  Estadistica  General  del  Comercio  Exterior  •")  it  was 
as  follows : 


Cuba 

Lesser  Antilles 

United  States 

Spain 

England 

France  

Germany 

Other  European  countries 

Total 


$808,283 
1,709,872 
1,506,512 
8,572,549 
1,765,574 

251,984 
1,368,595 

371,485 


$16,155,056 


$3,610,936 
625,010 
1,833,544 
5,824,694 
1,144,555 
1,376,087 
1,181,396 
828,709 


$14,629,494 


The  foregoing  figures  show  a  balance  of  trade  against  the 
island  of  $1,525,562,  which  was  largely  due,  no  doubt,  to  the 
disturbances  of  the  Cuban  trade.  "  The  Statesman's  Year- 
book "  gives  quite  different  statistics,  showing  an  excess  of 
exports  over  imports  amounting  to  about  $1,650,000. 

The  principal  articles  of  foreign  commerce  in  1895, 
according  to  the  "  Estadistica  General  del  Comercio  Ex- 
terior "  of  Porto  Rico  (the  latest  published),  were  as  f  oUows : 

Imports 


Coal 

Iron 

Soap 

Meat  and  lard 
Jerked  beef  . . 

Fish 

Rice 


$119,403 
224,206 
238,525 

1,223,104 
133,616 

1,591,418 

2,180,004 


Flour  

Vegetables 

Olive-oil 

Wine 

Cheese  

Other  provisions 

Tobacco  (manufactured) 


$982,222 
192,918 
327,801 
305,656 
324,137 
171,322 
663,464 


industry  and  commerce 
Exports 


163 


AKTICLB8. 

VALUE. 

ARTICLES. 

VALUE. 

Coffee 

$8,789,788 
646,556 

Sugar 

Honey 

$3,747,891 

Tobacco  

517,746 

Owing  to  the  trouble  with  the  currency,  the  rate  of  ex- 
change is  high,  running,  in  1894,  from  three  to  five  cents 
on  the  dollar.  The  Mexican  dollar  became  the  currency  in 
1878,  with  a  value  of  ninety-five  cents  in  Spanish  money 
and  one  silver  dollar  in  United  States  money.  The  Ameri- 
can silver  dollar  depreciated  in  other  markets,  but  found 
circulation  in  Porto  Eico,  until  all  the  gold  and  Spanish 
dollars  disappeared.  In  1885  the  government  forbade  the 
importation  of  Mexican  dollars,  and  declared  illegal  Mexican 
coins  of  pre\dous  dates.  Then  the  dates  of  the  dollars  were 
falsified,  and  they  still  circulated  until  the  Mexican  dollar 
became  the  only  currency. 

The  industries  of  the  island  are  limited  to  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  sugar  and  coffee  for  market,  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  tobacco,  chocolate,  wax,  soap,  matches,  rum,  and 
straw  hats ;  there  are  also  three  foundries  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  iron  machinery. 


I** 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE  PEOPLE 

Statistical  details  of  number,  sex,  nativity,  race,  and  literacy.  Excess  of 
males.  Small  proportion  of  foreign  people.  Divisions  into  classes. 
The  "  Spaniards  "  (white  Porto  Ricans).  The  gibaros,  or  peasantry. 
The  negroes.     Former  conditions  of  slavery  in  Porto  Rico. 

THE  number,  sex,  nativity,  race,  and  literacy  of  the 
population  of  Porto  Rico,  according  to  the  latest 
census  obtainable,  that  of  1887,  are  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying table. 

Some  of  the  essential  features  of  the  statistics  are  as  fol- 
lows :  The  small  proportion  of  foreigners,  less  than  one 
per  cent.,  shows  how  thoroughly  the  population  has  become 
indigenous.  Another  peculiar  feature  is  that  the  white  race 
outnumbers  the  combined  black  and  colored  people,  prov- 
ing that  Porto  Rico,  at  least,  has  not  become  Africanized, 
as  have  all  the  other  West  Indies  excepting  Cuba.  Eighty- 
seven  per  cent,  of  the  people  are  illiterate,  like  the  mass  of 
the  peasantry  of  the  mother-country,  from  whom  they  have 
descended. 

The  population  of  the  island  by  natural  increase  has 
multiplied  two  and  one  half  times  since  the  census  of  1830, 
the  whites  having  tripled  and  the  black  and  colored  doubled 
their  numbers.  The  density  of  221  to  the  square  mile  is 
equal  to  that  of  many  of  the  European  countries,  although 

164 


THE  PEOPLE 


165 


Classification  op  the  Inhabitants  of  Porto  Rico  at  the 
Last  Official  Census  of  December  31,  1887,  by  (a)  De- 
partment; (&)  Nativity;  (c)  Race;  {d)  Literacy 


DEPARTMENT. 


Bayamon 

Arecibo 

Aguadilla 

Mayaguez    

Ponce  

Guayama 

Humacao  

Vieques  (Island) 

Total. . . . 


65,353 
62,410 
42,910 
58,635 
81,612 
49,087 
41,089 
3,191 


65,763 
62,425 
43,641 
58,347 
78,528 
49,727 
41,162 
2,828 


131,116 

124,835 

86,551 

116,982 

160,140 

98,814 

82,251 

6,019 


404,287 


402,421 


806,708 


Spanish  (Porto  Rico) 
Foreigners 

Total 


401,078 
3,209 


404,287 


399,885 
2,536 


402,421 


800,963 
5,745 


806,708 


RACE 

FEMALES. 

MAT.BS. 

TOTAL. 

White  

242,982 

122,434 

38,770 

237,285 

126,155 

38,981 

480,267 
248,690 

Colored 

Black 

77,751 

Total 

404,287 

402,421 

806,708 

Able  to  read  and  write 

Able  only  to  read 

Illiterate 

Total 


57,216 

5,662 

341,409 


404,287 


39,651 

8,851 

353,919 


402,421 


96,867 

14,513 

695,328 


806,708 


166  CUBA   AND    POETO   RICO 

only  one  fourth  that  of  Barbados.  Apparently  the  island 
has  attained  a  sufficient  number  of  people  in  proportion 
to  its  capacities. 

The  aborigines  of  Porto  Eico,  of  Arawak  or  Carib  stock, 
were  largely  exterminated  in  1811,  immediately  after  an 
uprising  on  their  part  against  the  Spanish  soldiers.  The 
survivors,  enslaved,  quickly  vanished.  The  race  was  not 
very  numerous.  Espinosa,  the  ethnologist,  says  that  at  the 
present  time  no  people  of  this  race  can  be  found,  except 
a  few  individuals  whose  hair  and  color  would  indicate  a 
mixture  of  Indian  and  negro. 
J  The  native  people,  as  a  whole,  may  be  divided  into  four 
classes:  the  better  class  of  Creoles,  who  call  themselves 
•  Spaniards;  the  lower  class  of  white  peasantry,  known  as 
gibaros ;  the  colored  people,  or  mestizos ;  and  the  blacks. 

The  Porto  Rican  Spaniards  of  the  upper  class,  in  point 
of  connections  and  respectability,  are  the  descendants  of 
military  men  who,  during  the  long  period  when  the  island 
was  a  mere  garrison,  formed  alliances  and  settled  within  it. 
These  people  maintain  the  pride  of  their  descent  with  all 
the  stateliness  of  grandees,  and  some  of  them  are  opulent. 
This  class,  of  white  blood  and  Spanish  feelings,  opinions, 
and  prejudices,  so  widely  different  from  what  is  to  be  found 
in  the  British  or  French  islands,  forms  the  distinctive 
feature  of  the  population. 

They  are  a  good-looking,  happy,  and  prosperous  set  of 
people,  and  they  have  had  the  time  and  taken  the  trouble 
to  acquire  some  education.  They  constitute  the  commer- 
cial, professional,  and  planter  classes.  The  ladies  are 
handsome  and  refined,  and  as  strictly  secluded  as  in  other 
Spanish  countries.  Their  goodness  of  heart  and  unaffected 
frankness  with  their  friends  are  charming.  Those  of  gentle 
birth  and  breeding  are  sweet  and  flower-like,  with  the 
bright  alertness  of  a  Latin  woman  transplanted  to  Ameri- 
can soil  and  climate.  Their  glances  are  swift  and  meaning, 
and  their  great  black  eyes  full  of  expression.  Their  features 
are  regular.    They  are  petite  of  form  and  have  small  hands 


THE  PEOPLE  167 

and  feet,  and  dress  in  Parisian  styles,  although  these  styles 
are  usually  a  year  or  two  old  by  the  time  they  reach  Porto 
Rico. 

As  has  been  remarked,  the  peasants  show  clearly  their 
Andalusian  origin.  Although  indolent,  they  are  sagacious, 
and  skilful  in  conversation,  fond  of  eating  and  drinking, 
and  free  in  their  customs,  manners,  and  morals,  as  judged 
by  our  standard.  The  poorest  gives  his  best  to  the  pass- 
ing stranger.  They  are  not  disposed  to  continuous  labor, 
however ;  nor  is  this  necessary  in  so  prolific  a  land.  With- 
out much  ambition  or  thought  for  the  future,  they  are  con- 
tent to  live  for  the  passing  to-day. 

In  the  country  the  poorer  classes  are  mainly  engaged  in 
the  business  of  planting ;  others  live  from  hand  to  mouth 
in  the  towns  or  cities.  The  former  live  as  nearly  in  a 
state  of  nature  as  the  laws  will  allow,  for  the  simple 
reason  that  it  pleases  them  best  and  is  comfortable.  The 
children  genera^lly  don  the  garb  of  civilization  at  or  near  the 
age  of  ten  or  twelve.  In  the  interior  district  the  coffee- 
laborer  is  paid  in  plantains ;  fifty  plantains  are  a  day's  pay 
and  on  this  he  feeds  his  family  and  then  sells  the  rest,  los- 
ing one  day  per  week  in  going  to  market,  often  twenty 
miles  away.  The  people  are  very  fond  of  amusements, 
principally  gambling,  in  which  they  squander  their  sub- 
stance. The  gambling  habit  is  common  to  all  classes,  from 
the  rich  planter  and  priest  down  to  the  lowest  beggar. 

Colonel  Flinter,  the  historian  of  the  island,  has  described 
the  gibaros  as  like  the  peasafitry  of  Ireland,  proverbial  for 
their  hospitality ;  and,  like  them,  they  are  ready  to  fight  on 
the  slightest  provocation.  They  swing  themselves  to  and 
fro  in  their  hammocks  all  day  long,  smoking  their  cigars, 
and  scraping  a  guitar.  The  plantain-grove  which  sur- 
rounds their  houses,  and  the  coffee-trees  which  grow 
almost  without  cultivation,  afford  them  a  frugal  subsis- 
tence. The  cabins  are  thatched  with  the  leaves  of  the 
palm-tree ;  the  sides  are  often  open,  or  merely  constructed 
of  the  same  kind  of  leaves  as  the  roof,  such  is  the  mild- 


168  CUBA   AND   POETO   EICO 

ness  of  the  climate.  Some  cabins  have  doors,  others  have 
none.  There  is  nothing  to  dread  from  robbers,  and  if  there 
were  bandits,  poverty  would  protect  the  people  from  vio- 
lence. A  few  calabash-shells  and  earthen  pots,  one  or 
two  hammocks  made  of  the  bark  of  the  palm-tree,  two  or 
three  game-cocks,  and  a  machete  form  the  extent  of  their 
movable  property.  A  few  coffee-trees  and  plantains,  a  cow 
and  a  horse,  an  acre  of  land  in  corn  or  sweet  potatoes,  con- 
stitute the  property  of  what  would  be  denominated  a 
comfortable  gibaro,  who,  mounted  on  his  meager  and  hard- 
worked  horse,  with  his  long  sword  protruding  from  his 
baskets,  dressed  in  a  broad-rimmed  straw  hat,  cotton  jacket, 
clean  shirt,  and  check  pantaloons,  sallies  forth  from  his 
cabin  to  mass,  to  a  cock-fight,  or  to  a  dance,  thinking  him- 
self the  most  independent  and  happy  being  in  existence. 

A  reviewer  has  noted  that  the  descriptions  of  character 
which  Colonel  Flinter  has  given  do  not  show  any  symptoms 
of  the  industry  which  he  elsewhere  attributes  to  the  hus- 
bandmen of  Porto  Rico.  But  it  is  quite  clear  that  the  spread 
of  these  tropical  backwoodsmen  over  the  virgin  soil  of  the 
island  has  prevented  it  thus  far  from  falling  into  the 
hands  of  the  sugar-monopolist ;  and  it  furnishes  a  sufficient 
answer  to  those  who  imagine  that  a  European  race,  living 
by  its  own  labor,  cannot  exist  where  80°  is  the  average 
height  of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer.  With  the  gradual 
diffusion  of  education,  of  which  there  is  a  lamentable  de- 
ficiency, much  of  the  grosser  part  of  the  character  of  the 
peasantry  may  be  progressively  removed. 

The  negroes  of  Porto  Rico  are  in  a  minority;  they  do 
not  form  a  very  considerable  part  of  the  population,  and 
are  not  distinguished  by  marked  characteristics.  With 
the  gibaros  they  form  the  laboring  class  of  the  island,  and 
seem  thoroughly  contented  with  their  lot,  which,  as  in 
Cuba,  is  much  better  than  that  of  the  negroes  in  the 
French,  English,  and  independent  islands. 

In  our  description  of  the  negro  and  colored  populations 
of  Cuba  we  have  alluded  to  the  social  status  and  traits  of 


PLAZA   AND   CATHEDRAL   AT   ARECIBO 


i 

1 

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1/^    ,-ll!^1l;i«fO^'U-lB 

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["^viiirit"'     ''** 

i;iJ^j^ju^4^^'L'iiBi^^;i^,^J»vc*: 

.« j'w 

%£:r.v^:iSAY7-,4MHMM^^^ 

^BIH{ 

PALMS   NEAR   SAN   JUAN 
PORTO  KICO 


THE  PEOPLE  169 

these  people  in  the  Spanish  colonies,  which  are  so  different 
from  those  of  the  blacks  in  our  own  country  and  the  French 
and  British  islands  of  the  West  Indies.  The  race  question 
is  a  difficult  one  to  discuss,  for,  like  the  taboo,  race  prejudice 
is  possessed  by  all,  though  explicable  by  none.  I  cannot 
tell  why  the  Spanish  man  of  color  does  not  affect  the 
prejudice  against  the  negro  which  I  feel  in  my  own  and 
other  countries.  I  only  know  that  the  former  is  of  a  differ- 
ent class.  There  is  some  reason  for  his  superiority,  how- 
ever, and  perhaps  it  may  be  due  to  the  following  facts  of 
history  gleaned  from  an  old  volume  of  the  "English 
Review."  i 

As  far  back  a«  1834  the  free  colored  inhabitai^ts  of 
Porto  Rico  were  by  far  more  numerous  than  in  any i  othei* 
West  Indian  island;  and  this  fact  alone— when  we  con- 
sider the  ineradicable  prejudice  attached  to  color,  which 
has  brought  such  misery  and  social  discomfort  over  a  great 
part  of  the  world — speaks  volumes  for  its  people  and  their 
government.  The  whole  British  West  Indies  contained, 
before  1834,  not  more  than  eighty  thousand  free  colored 
inhabitants,  in  a  population  of  ten  times  that  number ;  of 
these,  sixteen  thousand  were  to  be  found  in  Trinidad 
alone,  an  island  which  had  long  been  governed  by  Span- 
ish laws.  Although  white  blood  is  in  Porto  Rico,  as  every- 
where else  beyond  the  Atlantic,  a  patent  of  nobility,  yet 
the  gibaro  no  more  treats  with  contempt  and  contumely 
his  inferior  in  caste  than  the  grandee  of  old  Spain  his  infe- 
rior in  station. 

But  the  good  treatment  of  the  slaves  was  the  basis  upon 
which  the  polity  of  the  island  formerly  rested.  Small  as 
was  their  number,  we  may  safely  say  that,  in  every  com- 
munity in  which  slavery  was  recognized,  it  gave  a  character 
to  the  whole  society ;  the  people  in  general  were  licentious, 
cruel,  disorderly,  according  to  the  estimate  they  formed  of 
the  lowest  class. 

It  was  while  avarice  ruled  the  earlier  conquerors  of 
America,  and  seduced  them  into  practices  revolting  to 


170  CUBA   AND   PORTO   EICO 

human  nature,  that  the  foundations  were  laid  of  a  code  of 
laws,  both  for  slaves  and  for  the  native  Indians,  the  spirit 
of  which  has  ever  prevailed  among  the  Spanish  Creoles, 
and  which  shames  nations  that  arrogate  to  themselves  the 
title  of  enlightened.  Shallow  thinkers  have  often  enter- 
tained the  paradox  that  free  states  show  less  humanity  in 
their  colonies  than  is  shown  in  those  under  absolute  mon- 
archies. Of  all  West  India  annals,  those  of  the  French 
islands  before  the  revolution  were  perhaps  the  most  darkly- 
stained  with  cruelty,  and  their  quondam  slaves,  the  Hai- 
tians, are  now  the  lowest  of  the  West  Indian  negroes.  The 
free  states  of  South  America,  on  the  other  hand,  have 
not  only  followed,  but  have  still  further  extended,  in  the 
midst  of  their  anarchy  and  factional  fighting,  those  prin- 
ciples of  Christian  mercy  and  justice  toward  the  black  man 
which  Spain  alone,  until  recently,  knew  and  practised. 

By  the  Spanish  laws,  the  hours  of  labor,  the  amount  of 
food  and  clothing,  and  various  other  particulars  in  the 
treatment  of  the  slaves,  were  minutely  and  humanely 
specified.  Owners  were  obliged  to  have  their  slaves 
instructed  in  the  elements  of  Christianity,  so  that  they 
could  be  admitted  into  the  church  by  baptism  within  a 
year  after  their  importation.  Twenty-five  stripes  formed  the 
maximum  of  punishment.  The  regulations  for  the  encour- 
agement of  marriage  were  so  favorable  to  the  slaves  that 
they  often  proved  burdensome  to  the  owner.  These  are 
only  a  few  items  of  a  clement  code  which  seems  to  have 
been  so  seconded  by  the  natural  humanity  of  the  people  as 
to  have  left  as  little  of  misery  and  shame  attached  to  ser- 
vitude as  was  compatible  with  its  miserable  nature. 

Finally,  when  emancipation  was  given  (in  1873),  the  in- 
dustry of  the  Spanish  islands,  alone  of  all  the  West  Indies, 
survived  the  effects,  the  planters  being  able  to  continue 
their  agricultural  operations  without  financial  ruin  and 
social  disorganization. 

The  prosperity  of  Porto  Rico  is  shown  quite  as  much  in 
its  increased  population  as  its  general  material  progress. 


THE  PEOPLE  171 

Since  the  middle  of  the  last  century  the  social  condition  of 
the  inhabitants  has  undergone  a  complete  change.  At  that 
time  there  were  no  towns,  and  the  inhabitants  assembled 
only  on  feast-days  at  the  central  point  in  each  parish. 
They  dwelt  in  rude  hovels,  and  their  only  utensil  was  the 
calabash.  An  empty  bottle  was  handed  down  as  an  heir- 
loom to  the  favorite  son.  At  present,  more  than  one  half 
of  the  inhabitants  have  gravitated  toward  the  towns,  espe- 
cially those  on  the  seaboard,  and  trade  has  familiarized 
them  with  modern  inventions. 


CHAPTER  XIX 


CITIES   OF  POBTO   RICO 


SanJiian.  Ponce.  Mayaguez.  Aguadilla.  Areeibo.  Fajardo.  Naguabo, 
Arroyo,  San  German,  and  small  towns.  Islands  attached  to  the  gov- 
ernment of  Porto  Rico. 

PORTO  RICO  has  many  centers  of  population,  includ- 
ing the  chief  cities  of  San  Juan,  Ponce,  and  Maya- 
guez, and  over  fifty  smaller  towns  which  are  the  centers 
of  small  departments  having  a  population  of  from  six 
to  thirty  thousand  inhabitants.  The  population  is  so 
dense  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  unsettled  area  of  the 
highest  portions,  the  island  presents  the  aspect  of  a  con- 
tinuous series  of  farms  and  small  villages.  The  people 
center  in  towns  and  villages,  whence  the  laborers  proceed 
to  the  fields  to  work.  All  the  towns  are  built  upon  the 
same  general  plan,  with  ornately  colored,  stuccoed  houses, 
roofed  with  red  tiles,  usually  narrow  streets,  and  always  an 
attempt  at  a  central  park  or  plaza  with  gardens,  benches, 
and  promenades.  Some  of  these  towns,  like  San  German 
and  Aguada,  date  back  to  1511 ;  a  larger  number  were  built 
during  the  eighteenth  century.  Nearly  twenty  of  the  towns 
originated  within  the  present  century,  however,  showing 
that  the  urban  development  of  the  island  has  not  been 
retarded. 

In  the  present  chapter  we  shall  describe  the  larger  com- 
mercial cities,  which  are  mostly  seaports. 

172 


CITIES   OF  POETO   RICO  173 

San  Juan  Bautista  de  Puerto  Rico,  as  the  capital  of  the 
island  is  officially  designated,  is  situated  near  the  east 
end  of  the  north  coast,  on  an  island  united  to  the  mainland 
by  the  bridge  of  San  Antonio.  It  is  the  oldest  settlement 
on  the  island,  having  been  founded  in  1511.  The  main 
portion  of  the  city  lies  on  a  long  and  narrow  island  shaped 
much  like  an  arm  and  a  hand ;  it  is  about  two  and  a  quarter 
miles  long,  and  averages  less  than  one  fourth  of  a  mile  in 
width.  The  greatest  width  is  a  little  over  half  a  mile,  in 
the  portion  representing  the  hand,  which  also  contains  the 
major  part  of  the  city.  This  is  separated  from  the  main- 
land at  one  end  by  a  shallow  ai"m  of  the  sea.  A  bridge 
connects  the  city  with  the  mainland,  which  runs  out  at 
this  point  in  a  sand-spit,  some  nine  miles  in  length.  At 
the  other  end,  the  island  ends  in  a  rugged  bluff  or  prom- 
ontory, some  hundred  feet  high  and  three  fourths  of  a 
mile  distant  from  the  main  shore.  This  promontory  is 
crowned  by  Morro  Castle,  the  principal  fortification. 

At  the  north  the  entrance  to  the  harbor  is  a  narrow 
channel  with  rocky  bottom,  so  close  under  the  headland 
that  one  can  almost  leap  ashore  from  a  passing  vessel. 
The  water  here  is  some  thirty  feet  deep.  To  a  mariner 
unacquainted  with  the  locality,  or  to  any  mariner  when  a 
norther  is  blowing,  this  entrance  is  one  of  difficulty  and 
danger.  After  rounding  the  bluff,  one  finds  a  broad  and 
beautiful  bay,  landlocked  and  with  a  good  depth  of  water, 
which  is  being  increased  by  dredging.  It  is  by  far  the  best 
harbor  in  Porto  Rico,  but  it  has  its  drawbacks.  Sailing- 
vessels  are  frequently  detained  by  the  northerly  winds 
during  the  winter  months,  and  even  steamers  with  a  draft 
of  over  twenty  feet  are  sometimes  delayed ;  but  these  oc- 
casions are  rare.  When  these  storms  occur,  the  hoca^  or 
entrance  to  the  harbor,  is  a  mass  of  seething,  foaming 
water,  and  presents  an  imposing  spectacle.  To  see  steamers 
of  sixteen  to  eighteen  feet  draft  enter  in  a  severe  norther 
is  a  sight  to  be  remembered,  as  the  gi'eat  waves  lift  them 
up  and  seem  about  to  hurl  them  forward  to  destruction. 


174  CUBA  AND   POKTO   RICO 

At  such  times  there  is  need  of  a  stanch  vessel,  steady 
nerves,  and  a  captain  well  acquainted  with  the  channel,  as 
no  pilot  will  venture  out. 

San  Juan  is  a  perfect  specimen  of  a  walled  town,  with 
portcullis,  moat,  gates,  and  battlements.  Built  over  two 
hundred  and  fifty  years  ago,  it  is  still  in  good  condition 
and  repair.  The  walls  are  picturesque  and  represent  a 
stupendous  work  and  cost  in  themselves.  Besides  the 
town  within  the  walls,  there  are  small  portions  just  out- 
side, called  the  Marina  and  Puerta  de  Espana,  containing 
two  or  three  thousand  inhabitants  each.  There  are  also 
two  suburbs— one,  San  Turce,  approached  by  the  only  road 
leading  out  of  the  city,  and  the  other,  Catano,  across  the 
bay,  reached  by  ferry.  The  Marina  and  the  two  suburbs 
are  situated  on  sandy  points  or  spits,  and  the  latter  are 
surrounded  by  mangrove  swamps. 

The  city  has  several  important  and  imposing  fortifica- 
tions, which  were  commenced  in  the  year  1534,  the  oldest 
of  which  is  San  Catalina ;  Morro  Castle,  the  principal  de- 
fense, was  built  in  1584;  and  Canuelo  and  San  Cristobal 
were  finished  in  1751.  Against  the  seaward  front  of  the 
massive  walls  of  the  Morro  the  ocean  pounds  and  thun- 
ders. A  broad  parade-ground  is  inclosed  within  the  walls 
westward  from  the  citadel,  and  not  far  off  is  the  largest 
house  of  the  city — no  less  a  structure  than  the  ancient 
castle  of  Ponce  de  Leon.  His  ashes  are  also  kept  here  in 
a  leaden  case. 

Inside  the  walls,  the  city  is  laid  off  in  regular  squares, 
six  parallel  streets  running  in  the  direction  of  the  length 
of  the  island,  and  seven  at  right  angles.  The  streets  are 
wider  than  in  the  older  part  of  Havana,  and  will  admit  two 
carriages  abreast.  The  sidewalks  are  narrow,  and  in  places 
will  accommodate  but  one  person.  The  pavements  are  of 
a  composition  manufactured  in  England  from  slag ;  pleas- 
ant, even,  and  durable,  when  no  heavy  strain  is  brought  to 
bear  upon  them,  but  easily  broken,  and  unfit  for  heavj^ 
traffic.     Three  streets  beautifully  shaded   by  trees  are 


CITIES  OF  POETO  RICO  175 

known  as  the  Princesa,  Puerto  de  Tierra,  and  Govadonga ; 
four  spacious  plazas  with  seats  are  provided  for  recreation. 
The  streets  are  swept  daily  by  hand,  and  are  kept  very 
clean. 

Among  the  large  and  imposing  public  buildings  are  the 
casino,  the  Casa  Blanca,  the  cathedral,  the  administrative 
building,  the  barracks  of  Balaga,  the  Casa  de  Beneficencia, 
the  seminary,  the  theater,  the  Intendencia,  the  Diputa- 
cion  Provincial,  the  institute,  the  Real  Audiencia,  the 
aduana  or  custom-house,  the  residence  of  the  military 
governor,  that  of  the  captain  of  the  port,  the  Presidio 
Provincial,  the  San  Geronimo,  the  Santa  Elena,  the 
Carmelite  convent;  the  churches  of  San  Jose,  San  Fran- 
cisco, La  Capilla,  Santa  Ana,  Ermita  del  Santo  Cristo,  and 
St.  Augustine ;  the  civil  hospital,  the  College  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  of  Jesus,  the  public  warehouses,  the  Yacht  Club, 
the  railway-station,  the  Bank  of  Spain  and  Porto  Rico, 
the  office  of  the  administrator-general  of  communications, 
and  the  Hotel  Inglaterra.  There  are  also  many  large  stores 
and  shops,  tastefully  arranged,  and  filled  with  all  kinds  of 
European  goods. 

The  residences  occupied  by  the  more  respectable  people 
are  the  upper  floors  of  the  two- story  buildings,  while  the 
ground  floors,  almost  without  exception,  are  given  up  to 
negroes  and  the  poorer  class,  who  crowd  one  upon  another 
in  the  most  appalling  manner.  One  small  room,  with  a 
flimsy  partition,  will  house  a  whole  family. 

There  is  but  little  manufacturing,  and  it  is  of  small 
importance.  The  Standard  Oil  Company  has  a  small  re- 
finery across  the  bay,  in  which  crude  petroleum,  brought 
from  the  United  States,  is  refined.  Matches  are  made, 
some  brooms,  a  little  soap,  and  a  cheap  class  of  trunk. 
There  are  also  ice,  gas,  and  electric-light  works.  In  1892 
a  contract  was  made  with  a  London  company  to  build  an 
aqueduct  for  supplying  the  city  with  water.  The  muni- 
cipality guaranteed  seven  per  cent,  interest  on  the  cost,  not 
to  exceed  ninety  thousand  pounds,  to  be  finished  in  two 


176  CUBA  AND   POETO  RICO 

years.  Floods  and  other  difficulties  have  prevented  its 
completion.  A  British  company  was  formed  in  1875,  with 
a  capital  of  thirty- six  thousand  pounds,  and  given  a  mo- 
nopoly of  twenty-five  years  for  lighting  the  public  streets 
with  gas.  This  undertaking  was  not  successful,  and  in 
1897  a  New  York  company  was  organized  to  construct  an 
electric-light  plant.  The  same  company  also  obtained  a 
concession  for  electric  cars. 

The  port  is  constantly  visited  by  a  multitude  of  sailing- 
vessels  and  steamers  of  all  nationahties,  while  telegi-aph, 
railways,  and  coasting-vessels  afford  free  communication 
with  all  parts  of  the  island. 

The  city  has  a  board  of  trade  and  several  local  insurance 
societies.  As  usual  in  Spanish  cities,  many  social  organ- 
izations exist,  the  principal  object  of  which  is  pleasure, 
although  they  are  nominally  founded  upon  a  benevolent 
basis.  Among  these  are  the  Society  for  the  Protection  of 
Intelligence,  the  Grand  Economic  Society,  and  the  Friends 
of  Peace.  Others  have  simpler  names,  such  as  the  Athe- 
naeum, the  Casino  Espanol,  the  Casino  de  San  Juan,  etc. 
The  principal  benevolent  institutions  are  the  orphan  asy- 
lum, having  two  hundred  and  seventy  children  under  its 
care;  the  College  of  St.  Ildefonsa,  for  the  education  of 
poor  children ;  the  military  hospital,  the  insane  asylum,  the 
maternity  hospital,  and  the  Hospital  of  Santa  Rosa. 

The  entire  population  of  the  city  and  suburbs,  according 
to  the  census  of  1887,  was  twenty-seven  thousand.  It  is 
now  (1898)  estimated  at  thirty  thousand.  One  half  of  the 
population  consists  of  negroes  and  persons  of  mixed  race. 
The  population  within  the  walls  is  estimated  at  twenty 
thousand,  and  most  of  it  lives  on  the  gi'ound  floor. 

From  its  topographic  situation  the  town  should  be 
healthful,  but  it  is  not.  The  ground  floors  reek  with  filth, 
and  conditions  are  most  unsanitary.  In  a  tropical  coun- 
try, where  disease  readily  prevails,  the  consequences  of 
such  herding  may  be  easily  inferred.  The  soil  under  the 
city  is  clay  mixed  with  lime,  so  hard  as  to  be  almost  like 


CITIES   OF   PORTO   BIGG  177 

rock.  It  is  consequently  impervious  to  water  and  fur- 
nishes a  good  natural  di'ainage.  The  town  is  unprovided 
with  running  water.  The  entire  population  depends  upon 
rain-water,  caught  upon  the  flat  roofs  of  the  buildings,  and 
conducted,  in  every  case,  to  the  cistern,  which  occupies 
the  gi'eater  part  of  the  inner  courtyard  that  is  an  essential 
part  of  Spanish  houses  the  world  over,  but  that  here,  on 
account  of  the  crowded  conditions,  is  very  small.  There 
is  no  sewerage,  except  for  surface-water  and  sinks,  while 
vaults  are  in  every  house  and  occupy  such  space  as  there 
may  be  in  the  patios  not  taken  up  by  the  cisterns.  The 
risk  of  contaminating  the  water  is  very  great,  and  in  dry 
seasons  the  supply  is  entirely  exhausted.  Epidemics  are 
frequent,  and  the  town  is  alive  with  vermin,  fleas,  cock- 
roaches, mosquitos,  and  dogs.  Just  under  the  northern 
wall  of  the  Castle  of  San  Juan  is  the  public  cemetery,  the 
gate  being  overhung  by  an  ornate  sentry-box.  The  bones 
of  evicted  tenants  of  gi'aves,  whose  terms  of  tenancy  have 
expired,  are  piled  in  the  corner  of  the  inclosure — a  most 
revolting  and  unsanitary  practice. 

The  trade-wind  blows  strong  and  fresh,  and  through  the 
harbor  runs  a  stream  of  sea- water  at  a  speed  of  not  less 
than  three  miles  an  hour.  With  these  conditions,  no  con- 
tagious diseases,  if  properly  taken  care  of,  could  exist; 
without  them  the  place  would  be  a  veritable  plague-spot. 

Ponce,  near  the  south  shore,  is  about  ninety  miles  south- 
west from  San  Juan  by  a  fine  road  running  diagonally 
across  the  island.  This  city,  founded  in  1752,  has  fifteen 
thousand  inhabitants,  and  is  second  only  to  San  Juan  in 
population.  It  has  a  large  adjacent  rural  population, 
numbering  twenty-eight  thousand  people. 

The  city  is  on  a  plain  about  two  miles  from  the  suburban 
seaport  of  Playa,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  fine 
highway.  Playa  has  about  five  thousand  inhabitants,  and 
here  are  situated  the  custom-house,  the  office  of  the  cap- 
tain of  the  port,  and  all  the  consular  offices.  The  port  is 
spacious  and  will  hold  vessels  of  twenty-five  feet  draft. 


178  CUBA   AND   POKTO   KICO 

The  physical  aspect  of  Ponce  is  the  most  picturesque  on 
the  island,  on  account  of  the  beautiful  plains  which  sur- 
round it,  and  the  elegant  and  ornate  structures  of  the 
inhabitants. 

The  plaza  known  as  Las  Delicias  has  pretty  gardens  and 
an  ornate  Arabian  kiosk.  There  is  a  cathedral  at  Ponce, 
and  a  Protestant  church.  White-gypsum  quarries  are 
worked,  and  there  are  medicinal  baths,  the  warm  waters 
of  which  are  recommended  for  cutaneous  diseases.  The 
city  is  regularly  built,  the  central  part  almost  exclusively 
of  brick  houses,  and  the  suburbs  of  wood.  The  houses,  all 
built  of  stone,  are  very  similar  to  those  in  San  Juan.  It 
is  the  residence  of  the  military  commander,  and  pos- 
sesses a  chamber  of  commerce.  There  is  an  appellate 
criminal  court,  besides  other  courts ;  two  hospitals  besides 
the  military  hospital;  a  home  of  refuge  for  the  old  and 
poor,  a  perfectly  equipped  fire  department,  a  bank,  a  thea- 
ter, three  first-class  hotels,  and  gas-works.  The  city  has  an 
ice-machine ;  also  establishments  for  hulling  coffee,  distill- 
ing rum,  and  manufacturing  carriages,  and  a  large  sugar- 
grinding  plant.  There  are  one  hundred  and  fifteen  vehicles 
for  public  conveyance.  The  inhabitants  are  principally 
occupied  in  mercantile  pursuits;  but  carpenters,  brick- 
layers, joiners,  tailors,  shoemakers,  and  barbers  find  good 
employment.  The  chief  occupations  of  the  country  people 
are  the  cultivation  of  sugar,  cocoa,  tobacco,  and  oranges, 
and  the  breeding  of  cattle. 

The  climate,  on  account  of  the  sea-breezes  during  the 
day  and  land-breezes  at  night,  is  not  oppressive,  though 
warm;  and  as  water  for  all  purposes,  including  the  fire 
department,  is  amply  supplied  by  an  aqueduct.  Ponce  is 
perhaps  the  most  healthful  city  on  the  island. 

The  commercial  city  of  Mayaguez,  the  third  in  impor- 
tance, was  founded  in  1752.  It  is  situated  in  the  western 
part,  facing  the  Mona  Passage.  The  population  is  nearly 
twenty  thousand,  the  majority  white.  Of  industries  there 
is  little  to  be  said,  except  that  there  are  three  manufac- 


CITIES   OF  PORTO  EICO  179 

tories  of  chocolate,  for  local  consumption.  Sugar,  coffee, 
oranges,  pineapples,  and  cocoanuts  are  exported  largely — 
all,  except  coffee,  principally  to  the  United  States.  Of 
sugar,  the  muscovado  goes  to  the  United  States  and  the 
centrifugal  to  Spain.  Mayaguez  is  the  second  port  for 
coffee,  the  average  annual  export  being  one  hundi'ed  and 
seventy  thousand  hundredweights.  The  quality  is  of  the 
best,  ranging  in  price  with  Java  and  other  first-rate  brands. 
The  lower  grades  are  sent  to  Cuba.  About  fifty  thousand 
bags  of  flour  are  imported  into  this  port  every  year  from 
the  United  States,  out  of  the  one  hundred  and  eighty 
thousand  bags  consumed  in  the  whole  island. 

The  climate  is  excellent,  the  temperature  never  exceed- 
ing 90°  F.  The  city  is  connected  by  tramway  with  the 
neighboring  town  of  Aguadilla,  and  a  railroad  is  being  con- 
structed to  Lares,  one  of  the  large  interior  towns. 

Near  the  city  is  a  beautiful  plain  watered  by  the  Eio 
Mayaguez,  and  which,  like  the  country  around  San  Juan 
and  Ponce,  is  noted  on  the  island  for  its  fine  state  of  culti- 
vation. This  is  said  to  have  been  the  place  of  disembarka- 
tion of  Columbus  on  his  second  visit  to  the  island  in  1493. 
Most  of  the  people  are  engaged  in  commerce. 

Aguadilla,  founded  in  1775  (population  five  thousand), 
is  the  principal  town  and  the  port  of  Aguadilla  district,  in 
the  northwest  portion  of  the  island,  and  is  noted  for  its 
fish,  cane,  sweet  oranges,  and  lemons.  The  village  has 
beautiful  trees  surrounded  by  choice  gi*azing-lands ;  it 
has  a  pretty  plaza  divided  into  four  parts,  in  each  of 
which  is  a  little  garden  with  a  statue  in  its  center.  The 
cultivation  of  sugar-cane,  coffee,  tobacco,  and  cocoanuts, 
and  the  distillation  of  rum  from  molasses,  are  the  indus- 
tries of  the  neighborhood.  In  the  town  are  three  estab- 
lishments for  preparing  coffee  for  exportation.  The 
climate  is  hot,  but  healthful;  yellow  fever  almost  never 
prevails. 

Arecibo,  which  is  locally  known  as  the  most  loyal  town, 
was  founded  in  1788,  and  is  a  thriving  place  of  seven 


180  CUBA   AND   POBTO   KICO 

thousand  inhabitants.  It  is  situated  on  the  north  coast 
of  the  island,  facing  the  ocean  and  adjoining  an  exten- 
sive sandy  beach  bathed  by  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic. 
In  the  adjacent  lands  along  the  river  Arecibo  are  valuable 
plantations  of  coffee,  sugar,  etc.  There  are  also  fine  pas- 
tures near  here.  From  an  ornamental  central  plaza, 
surrounded  by  public  buildings,  the  streets  run  at  right 
angles,  forming  regular  squares.  The  buildings  are  con- 
structed of  wood  and  brick.  The  city  has  a  large  church, 
a  good  theater,  and  pleasing  public  buildings.  From  Are- 
cibo a  road  leads  to  the  cave  of  Consejo,  framed  by  a 
multitude  of  irregular  arches  which  pierce  the  rock  and 
which  are  lined  by  many  crystallizations  of  calcite. 

The  harbor  is  poor,  being  nothing  more  than  an  open 
roadstead  exposed  to  the  full  force  of  the  ocean,  in  which 
vessels,  during  northerly  winds,  can  hardly  lie  in  safety. 
Close  inshore,  on  one  side,  stretch  dangerous  reefs,  a 
constant  menace  to  vessels  if  their  anchors  do  not  hold. 
Into  this  harbor  empties  a  narrow  and  shallow  stream 
called  the  Rio  Grande  de  Arecibo.  Goods  are  conveyed 
on  this  river  to  and  from  the  town  in  flat-bottomed  boats, 
with  the  aid  of  long  poles,  and  by  dint  of  much  patient 
pushing.  At  the  bar  of  the  river  everything  is  again 
transferred  into  lighters,  and  thence  to  vessels.  It  is  a 
tedious  and  expensive  process.  .  However,  Arecibo  is  quite 
an  important  port,  and  has  tributary  to  it  a  large  district 
of  some  thirty  thousand  inhabitants.  The  want  of  good 
roads  on  the  island  makes  such  a  place  as  Arecibo  far 
more  important  than  it  would  otherwise  be. 

Fajardo,  founded  in  1774,  is  on  the  east  coast  of  the 
island,  and  has  a  population  of  8779  according  to  the  last 
official  statistics  (December,  1887).  The  port  is  handsome, 
with  a  third-class  lighthouse  at  the  entrance,  at  the  point 
called  Cabeza  de  San  Juan,  and  a  custom-house  open  to 
all  commerce.  The  town  is  about  one  and  a  quarter 
miles  from  the  bay.  The  only  important  industry  of  the 
district  is  the  manufacture  of  muscovado  sugar,  to  which 
most  of  the  planters  devote  themselves.     Shooks,  hickory 


CITIES   OF  POKTO   EICO  181 

hoops,  pine  boards,  and  provisions  come  from  the  United 
States  in  considerable  quantities.  Sugar  and  molasses 
are  exported,  and  occasionally  tortoise-shell.  The  climate 
is  temperate  and  healthful. 

Naguabo  (on  the  east  side)  has  only  about  two  thou- 
sand inhabitants,  and  in  the  harbor  there  is  another 
smaller  place,  called  Playa  de  Naguabo,  or  Ucares,  with 
about  fifteen  hundred.  The  capital  of  the  department, 
Humacao,  is  nine  miles  from  Naguabo,  and  has  four 
thousand  inhabitants,  the  district  comprising  more  than 
fifteen  thousand.  This  department  contains  many  fruit- 
and  cattle-farms,  and  also  grows  much  coffee.  The  lands 
are  well  irrigated  by  streams. 

Arroyo,  in  the  district  of  Guayama  (southeast  portion), 
is  a  small  seaport  of  about  twelve  hundred  inhabitants. 
The  annual  exports  to  the  United  States  average  seven 
to  ten  thousand  hogsheads  of  sugar,  two  to  five  thousand 
casks  of  molasses,  and  fifty  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  casks 
and  barrels  of  bay-rum.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  fertile 
country  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  sugar-cane. 

San  German,  situated  on  the  large  hill  near  the  river 
Guanajibo,  founded  in  1511,  is  in  a  district  having  a  popu- 
lation of  19,887  people,  many  of  them  well-to-do.  There 
are  three  public  plazas,  on  one  of  which  is  the  church, 
with  altars  of  marble,  and  an  antique  convent  belonging 
to  the  Dominicans.  The  city  has  a  seminary,  hospital, 
and  other  institutions.  The  adjacent  lands  formerly  pro- 
duced large  crops,  but  have  deteriorated;  nevertheless, 
they  are  still  more  or  less  productive. 

Many  villages  of  the  interior  are  situated  in  the  high- 
lands and  noted  for  their  cooler  temperature,  shade,  and 
waters.  Among  these  are  Aguas  Buenas,  surrounded  by 
coffee-  and  fruit-gardens ;  Cidra,  with  its  beautiful  forests 
and  tall  trees;  Cayey,  in  the  central  cordillera,  nestled 
amid  pretty  forests  and  farms  of  rice  and  coffee ;  Barros, 
near  the  center  of  the  island,  noted  for  its  coffee,  woods, 
and  excelliBnt  cattle. 

Adjuntas  is  also  situated  in  the  central  cordillera,  and 


182  CUBA  AND   PORTO   RICO 

its  topographic  position  gives  it  fresh  air.  In  this  vi- 
cinity a  number  of  beautiful  streams  run  in  all  directions 
through  fertile  valleys,  while  the  adjacent  elevated  moun- 
tains are  covered  with  coffee-  and  fruit-farms. 

Aibonito  is  one  of  the  highest  villages  in  the  island,  and 
has  a  very  refreshing  temperature.  The  surrounding 
country  produces  large  quantities  of  excellent  coffee. 

Rio  Piedras,  in  a  clay  and  limestone  district,  boasts  a 
resort  known  as  La  Convalecencia,  which  ie  frequented 
by  the  governors-general.  Caguas  has  beautiful  pastures, 
sugar-estates,  and  fruit-farms;  also  quarries  of  marble 
and  lime.  Bayamon  is  proud  of  a  fine  iron  bridge,  a  small 
iron-factory,  and  a  petroleum-refinery.  Anasco,  on  a  river 
of  the  same  name,  has  a  large  sugar-grinding  plant,  and 
the  fertile  surrounding  country  produces  large  crops  of 
beans,  vegetables,  sugar,  and  coffee.  Aguada,  founded  in 
1511,  also  claims  to  be  the  most  ancient  village  on  the 
island;  the  adjacent  lands  are  of  fine  quality.  Another 
large  sugar  plant  is  situated  at  this  village. 

Of  the  smaller  towns  and  villages  of  Porto  Eico  little 
can  be  said.  They  are  numerous  and  scattered  throughout 
the  island,  each  being  the  center  of  an  agricultural  com- 
munity; each  contains  its  plaza,  church,  administrative 
building,  and  a  few  stores,  together  with  the  usual  assem- 
blage of  lawyers,  doctors,  and  other  professional  men, 
including  the  escribanos,  or  professional  letter-writers  for 
the  illiterate.  There  are  also  blacksmiths  and  wheels 
Wrights.  Few  of  these  towns  have  hotels  or  other  accom- 
modations for  the  traveler.  Private  entertainment  is  so 
customary  and  hospitable  that  the  native  always  finds  a 
friend  who  gladly  entertains  him. 

ISLANDS   ATTACHED   TO   THE   GOVERNMENT   OF  PORTO   RICO 

There  are  three  small  islands  adjacent  to  Porto  Rico, 
which  constitute  parts  of  its  political  organization.  These 
are  Mona,  on  the  west,  and  Culebra  and  Vieques,  on  the 


CITIES   OF  PORTO  RICO  183 

east.  These  all  rise  in  line  with  the  Antillean  trend  from 
the  same  submerged  platform,  and  are  probably  remnants 
of  once  more-connected  masses  of  land. 

Dependent  on  the  department  of  Mayaguez  is  the  island 
of  Mona,  which  gives  its  name  to  the  broad  channel  flow- 
ing between  Porto  Eico  and  Santo  Domingo.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  perpendicular  cliffs,  white  in  color,  about  one 
hundred  and  seventy  feet  high,  full  of  holes,  and  with 
numbers  of  grottoes  or  caves.  Mona  terminates  on  the 
west  in  a  bold  headland  topped  by  a  huge  overhanging 
rock  known  to  seafarers  by  the  suggestive  name  of  Caigo- 
o-no-Caigo  ("  Shall  I  fall  or  not  ? ").  The  neighboring  islet 
has  been  christened  Monito,  the  "  Little  Monkey." 

Vieques  and  Culebra  are  known  as  the  Islas  de  Pasaje, 
because  they  lie  in  the  passage  between  Porto  Rico  and 
the  Virgin  group.  Culebra  Island,  the  more  northern  of 
these,  is  two  leagues  long  and  one  league  wide,  and  has  a 
population  of  five  hundred;  its  products  are  principally 
minor  fruits,  which  are  sent  mostly  to  St.  Thomas.  The 
island  has  no  running  streams,  but  water  is  supplied  by  a 
public  cistern. 

The  island  of  Vieques,  known  otherwise  as  Crab  Island, 
about  thirteen  miles  east  of  Porto  Eico,  is  to  that  island 
what  the  Isle  of  Pines  is  to  Cuba.  The  principal  settle- 
ment is  located  on  a  bay  on  the  southeast  side.  The 
island  is  twenty-one  miles  long  and  six  wide.  Its  land  is 
very  fertile  and  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  almost  all 
the  fruits  and  vegetables  that  grow  in  the  West  Indies. 
Cattle  are  raised  and  sugar  cultivated.  It  has  a  popula- 
tion of  some  six  thousand.  The  people  are  very  simple 
folk  and  poorly  educated.  The  town  Isabel  Segunda  is 
on  the  north,  and  the  port  is  unsafe  in  times  of  northerly 
wind,  like  all  the  anchorages  on  that  side ;  the  few  ports 
on  the  south  are  better,  the  best  being  Punta  Arenas. 
Not  long  ago  there  were  two  importing  and  exporting 
houses  on  the  island  of  Vieques;  but,  on  account  of  the 
long  period  of  drought  and  the  high  duties  on  imported 


184  CUBA  AND  POKTO  BICO 

goods,  trade  has  decreased  to  local  consumption  only.  All 
supplies  are  brought  from  San  Juan,  the  majority  being 
of  American  origin.  The  climate  is  fine  and  may  be  con- 
sidered healthful ;  there  have  never  been  any  contagious 
diseases. 

In  conclusion,  we  may  add  that  it  is  by  no  means  certain 
that  there  will  be  great  opportunities  for  the  acquisition  of 
wealth  in  Porto  Rico,  by  the  exploitation  of  either  the 
agricultural  or  mineral  resources  by  emigi'ants  of  the 
United  States.  The  conditions  that  have  prevailed  for 
centuries  cannot  be  changed  in  a  day.  The  lands  to  which 
titles  have  been  held  for  hundreds  of  years  cannot  be 
alienated  in  a  short  time.  Even  the  lands  which  may  be 
won  to  our  government  by  right  of  conquest  will  have 
to  remain  inaccessible  for  a  time. 


HARBOR    OF    PORT    ROYAL 

JAMAICA 


CHAPTER   XX 

JAMAICA 

Geographical  features  of  the  island.  Its  central  position  in  the  West 
Indies.  The  Blue  Mountain  scenery.  The  limestone  plateau.  The 
coast  border  and  plains.     Flora,  fauna,  climate,  sanitation. 

A  LTHOUGH  Jamaica  is  not  more  richly  endowed  by 
r\  natui'e  than  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  Santo  Domingo, 
yet,  because  of  the  administration  of  a  beneficent  govern- 
ment, it  ranks  as  the  most  beautiful  and  salubrious  of 
the  four  Great  Antilles.  Hp>rp  n.louft  has  a.  stab^ft  «tiJ 
civilized  government  been  established,  which  has  per- 
mitted the  development  of  the  possibilities  of  the  soil  and 
climate,  and,  by  enforcing  sanitation,  education,  and  public 
order,  has  enabled  us  to  see  how  high  a  degree  of  culture 
may  be  attained  in  the  West  Indies. 

Jamaica  is  an  elevated  prolongation  of  the  submerged 
bank  which  extends  southwestward  from  the  island  of 
Santo  Domingo,  and  lies  entirely  south  of  the  main  An- 
tiUean  ridge  formed  by  Cuba,  Santo  Domingo,  and  Porto 
Rico,  and  five  degrees  south  of  the  latitude  of  Havana.  It 
is  south  of  the  western  half  of  the  Sierra  Maestra  coast- 
line of  Cuba,  from  which  it  is  sixty-five  nautical  miles 
distant.  Between  these  islands  is  the  eastward  prolon- 
gation of  the  great  Bartlett  depression,  three  thousand 
fathoms  deep.     The  eastern  coast  is  about  the  same  dis- 

185 


186  CUBA  AND   POKTO   KICO 

tance  from  Cape  Tiburon,  the  western  point  of  Haiti,  and 
is  sepai-ated  therefrom  by  one  thousand  fathoms  of  water. 
On  the  south  lies  a  wide  stretch  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  two 
thousand  fathoms  deep.  Cape  Gracias  a  Dios,  on  the 
western  coast  of  Honduras,  the  nearest  Central  American 
land,  is  seven  hundred  and  eighty  nautical  miles  distant. 
To  the  southwest  extend  the  Eosalind  and  Pedro  banks, 
less  than  five  hundred  fathoms  deep,  which  constitute  an 
extensive  shallow  submarine  platform  connecting  Jamaica 
with  the  Central  American  littoral. 

The  island  is  at  almost  the  exact  center  of  the  great 
American  Mediterranean.  It  lies  just  half-way  between 
Galveston  and  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  the  southern 
point  of  Florida  and  the  northern  part  of  South  America, 
the  eastern  end  of  the  Antilles  (St.  Thomas)  and  the  west- 
ern indentations  of  the  Gulf  of  Honduras,  and  the  most 
northern  of  the  Bahamas  and  the  Gulf  of  Atrato.  This 
position  is  important  from  political,  geographic,  biologic, 
and  geologic  points  of  view,  and  makes  the  island  a  typical 
base  of  study  for  one  interested  in  Antillean  problems. 

Its  outline  is  that  of  an  elongated  parallelogram  whose 
corners  have  been  obliquely  truncated,  resulting  in  a  wide 
oblong  area  from  whose  east  and  west  ends  project  two 
broad  peninsulas.  Its  extreme  length  is  one  hundred  and 
forty-four  miles;  its  greatest  width  is  forty-nine  miles; 
its  least  width,  twenty-one  and  a  half  miles,  between 
Kingston  and  Annatto  Bay.  Its  longest  axis  lies  in  an 
east-and-west  direction.  The  area  is  4207-0-  square  miles — 
less  than  one  tenth  that  of  Cuba,  and  five  hundred  square 
miles  greater  than  that  of  Porto  Rico. 

From  the  sea  Jamaica  appears  as  a  group  of  mountain 
summits  rising  sharply  above  the  expanse  of  water  in  a 
tangled  mass  of  forest-covered  land,  apparently  without 
systematic  types  of  relief  by  which  its  configuration  can 
be  classified.  The  higher  summits  of  the  eastern  end  are 
usually  veiled  in  clouds,  so  that  only  their  lower  slopes 
are  visible.    The  mists  are  apparently  forever  present  in 


JAMAICA  187 

the  upper  regions,  for  one  can  seldom  catch  a  view  of  Blue 
Mountain  Peak,  the  monarch  of  the  system.  As  the  coast 
is  more  closely  approached  and  the  island  encircled,  the 
configuration  resolves  itself  into  well-differentiated  forms. 

The  uplands  do  not  slope  gi'adually  to  the  sea,  but  are 
terminated  near  the  coast  by  very  abruptly  truncated 
bluffs  and  steep  slopes,  usually,  but  not  everywhere,  sepa- 
rated from  the  sea  by  a  narrow  strip  of  plain,  as  if  the 
original  coast  margins  of  the  mountainous  upland  had 
once  extended  much  farther  seaward  and  had  been  hori- 
zontally planed  away  by  the  beating  sea.  This  abrupt  sea 
face  of  the  mountainous  upland  is  a  marked  topographic 
peculiarity,  which  we  shall  call  the  back-coast  border. 

The  chief  features  of  the  topography  are  the  superb 
summits  of  the  Blue  Mountain  ridge  of  the  east,  sur- 
rounded by  a  lower  but  rugged  plateau  of  white-limestone 
hills,  which  extends  westward  and  largely  occupies  the 
western  two  thirds  of  the  island.  The  secondary  features 
of  the  topography  are  interior  basins  and  valleys  in  the 
summit  of  the  plateau,  certain  coastal  benches  and  terraces 
carved  out  of  the  margin  of  the  back-coast  border,  occa- 
sional patches  of  low  coastal  plain,  and  deep-cut  drainage 
valleys. 

The  Blue  Mountain  ridge,  a  sinuous  divide  with  many 
bifurcating  branches,  extends  one  third  the  length  of  the 
island,  from  near  the  eastern  point  toward  Port  Maria,  and 
has  a  trend  of  north  of  west,  parallel  to  the  truncated 
northeast  coast.  It  presents  a  serrated  crest-line  with 
radiating  laterals,  whose  summits  culminate  near  the 
center  of  the  ridge  in  the  Blue  Mountain  Peak  (7360  feet). 
"West  of  this  peak  the  heights  gradually  decrease  until 
they  become  lower  than  those  of  the  limestone  plateau. 
The  central  ridge  and  numerous  laterals,  which  project 
from  it  at  right  angles,  present  steep  angular  profiles,  like 
that  of  an  inverted  letter  V.  Its  configuration  is  singu- 
larly free  from  benches,  mesa-tops,  or  cliffs. 

Imagination   can   picture   no  more  exquisite  scenery 


188  CUBA   AND   POETO   KICO 

than  that  of  these  mountains.  It  equals  that  of  Tyrol, 
but  is  entirely  different  in  detail,  as  can  be  seen  in  the 
ascent  of  Blue  Mountain  Peak.  With  increasing  altitude 
panorama  after  panorama  of  tropical  landscape  unfolds 
in  rapid  succession.  At  Gordontown,  nine  miles  north  of 
Kingston,  where  the  interior  margin  of  the  Liguanea  plain 
abruptly  meets  the  mountain  front,  the  ascent  begins 
through  the  red-colored  cliffs  of  the  Hope  River  canon, 
which  here,  at  an  altitude  of  nine  hundred  feet,  debouches 
into  the  gravel  plain.  A  thousand  feet  above  us,  the  white 
buildings  of  Newcastle  Barracks  look  like  doves  upon  a 
housetop ;  yet  later  we  climb  so  far  above  them  that  they 
seem  like  toy  houses  below.  At  two  thousand  feet  the 
plain  of  Liguanea,  upon  which  Kingston  is  built,  with  its 
neighboring  villages  and  shipping,  grows  smaller  and 
smaller,  and  finally  appears  like  a  diminutive  plaza  below 
us.  Sometimes  our  path  clings  to  the  mountain-side,  with 
an  apparently  endless  slope  above  and  a  bottomless  chasm 
below.  Again,  it  follows  a  knife-edge,  from  which  we  can 
see  beyond,  on  both  sides  of  the  island,  the  waters  of  the 
Caribbean,  so  distant  and  so  far  below  that  no  horizon 
can  be  distinguished  where  the  gray  of  the  sea  meets  that 
of  the  sky.  Great  ocean  steamers  plying  their  way  look 
like  minnows  basking  on  the  surface  of  a  lake.  Still 
higher  we  look  down  upon  the  forest-covered  summits 
of  the  limestone  plateau,  which  appears  below  as  an 
unbroken  meadow,  its  rugged  hills  and  canons  seemingly 
obliterated. 

Each  step  of  the  way  is  marked  by  wonders  of  the 
vegetal  kingdom.  At  the  foot  is  the  semiarid  south- 
coast  chaparral,  with  exogenous  banana-plants,  cocoanut- 
trees,  native  cactus,  and  acacias.  Ascending  Hope  River 
canon,  the  delicate  deciduous  flora  of  the  island  is  first 
met.  Vast  trees  of  the  forest,  draped  with  tillandsia, 
mantle  the  slopes,  while  the  cliffs  are  burdened  with 
begonia  and  ferns, — golden,  silver,  and  delicate  maiden- 
hair,—besides  many   little  flowers  which  find  foothold 


MOUNTAIN    SCIINERY 


NEWCASTLE    BARRACKS 
JAMAICA 


JAMAICA  189 

in  the  rocks.  From  one  to  four  thousand  feet,  planta- 
tions of  coffee  are  numerous,  because  of  the  congenial 
temperature  and  moisture  which  this  most  fastidious 
shrub  demands.  At  five  thousand  feet  the  government 
has  used  a  suitable  environment  for  a  cinchona-farm. 
Above  six  thousand  feet,  in  an  atmosphere  of  perpetual 
humidity,  tree-ferns,  the  most  exquisite  of  tropical  plants, 
appear  and  clothe  the  summit.  In  this  climate  alpine 
heights  and  slopes  offer  no  obstacle  to  human  occupation, 
and  to  an  altitude  of  four  thousand  feet  they  are  well 
populated.  On  the  summit  a  hut  has  been  provided  for 
the  tourist  to  camp  in  for  the  night. 

There  are  many  other  conspicuous  peaks  of  the  Blue 
Mountain  ridge,  but  few  of  them  have  received  local 
names.  Sugar-loaf  Peak,  which  lies  just  east  of  Blue 
Mountain  Peak,  is  a  part  of  the  latter.  To  the  west  are 
Sir  John's  Peak,  John  Crow  Hill,  Silver  Hill,  and  St. 
Catherine's  Peak  (5036  feet).  These  high  summits  are 
situated  near  the  central  portion  of  the  main  ridge,  which 
is  crossed  by  five  passes  with  altitudes  varying  between 
three  and  four  thousand  feet. 

East  of  Kingston  there  are  few  practical  openings 
through  the  Blue  Mountain  ridge  which  are  passable  on 
horseback.  One  of  these  is  that  of  Cuna-Cuna,  between 
Port  Antonio  and  Bowden,  which  traverses  some  of  the 
most  rugged  and  beautiful  scenery  on  the  island.  Its 
altitude  is  2698  feet.  A  good  highway  crosses  the  island 
through  a  pass  in  the  ridge  cut  by  the  waters  of  the  Wag 
Water  (Agua  Alta),  between  Kingston  and  Port  Maria. 

The  Blue  Mountain  ridge  is  not  a  rock-ribbed  projec- 
tion of  granite,  lava,  or  other  enduring  rock,  like  our 
New  England  hills,  but  is  composed  of  friable  or  loosely 
consolidated  shales,  clays,  and  conglomerates,  with  here 
and  there  an  exceptional  local  bed  of  limestone  or  an 
occasional  dike  or  mass  of  soft  and  decomposed  igneous 
rock.  The  result  is  a  configuration  of  wonderful  knife- 
crests,  slopes,  and  points,  rather  than  cliffs  and  table-lands. 


190  CUBA   AND   PORTO   EICO 

When  one  considers  the  softness  of  the  material,  and  how 
rapidly  degradation  is  going  on  and  has  gone  on,  he  can 
but  conclude  that  the  mountains  were  once  of  much 
greater  altitude  and  extent.  There  is  no  reason  why 
theii*  summits  in  times  past  may  not  have  extended  as 
high  as  their  kindred  in  the  Sierra  Maestra  of  Cuba,  over 
eight  thousand  feet,  or  in  Santo  Domingo,  over  ten  thou- 
sand feet. 

The  old  Blue  Mountain  rocks  reappear  in  many  places 
in  the  great  central  valleys  of  St.-Thomas-in-the-Vale, 
Clarendon  Parish,  Great  River,  and  elsewhere  to  the  west, 
where  the  later  crust  of  the  white-limestone  plateau  has 
been  worn  away.  They  are  also  seen  in  the  face  of  the 
back-coast  bluffs  along  the  western  half  of  the  north  side 
of  the  island,  below  the  limestone  and  above  the  narrow 
coastal  benches.  They  are  all  parts  of  the  same  grand 
Antillean  system  which  we  have  previously  described. 

The  western  two  thirds  of  the  island  is  occupied  by  the 
great  white-limestone  plateau,  a  wonderful  and  diversified 
region  of  hills,  valleys,  and  exquisite  landscapes.  This 
feature,  a  later  addition  to  the  geologic  architecture,  is  a 
dissected  plain,  which  has  been  carved  and  cut  into  a 
thousand  hills,  pitted  with  wonderful  sink-holes  and 
valleys,  and  covered  with  exquisite  vegetation.  Its  main 
area  stands  like  a  shoulder  some  two  thousand  feet  high, 
extending  westward  from  the  still  higher  sierras,  although 
a  narrow  belt  or  collar  of  it  completely  encircles  the  east- 
ern end  of  the  island. 

As  a  whole,  the  profile  of  the  plateau,  could  the  irregu- 
larities of  erosion  be  eliminated,  would  be  a  very  gentle 
arch  sloping  north  and  south  toward  the  adjacent  seas. 
The  curves  of  this  arch,  if  continued,  would  not  meet  the 
sea  at  the  present  margin  of  the  land,  but  would  intercept 
it  quite  a  distance  beyond  the  shores,  indicating  that  the 
foraier  borders,  now  restricted  by  the  agencies  which  have 
sculptured  the  steep  margins  of  the  plateau,  were  once 
much  more  extensive. 


JAMAICA  191 

By  tacit  consent,  the  innumerable  eminences  of  the 
plateau  are  called  hills  in  Jamaica,  to  distinguish  them 
from  the  central  mountains.  The  higher  summits  of  the 
plateau  are  found  near  the  center  of  the  island,  one 
of  which.  Mount  Diablo,  is  reported  to  be  3053  feet  in 
altitude. 

The  materials  of  the  plateau  and  its  outliers  are  soluble 
white  limestones  like  those  of  Cuba— sheets  of  old  cal- 
careous oceanic  sediments,  now  hardened  into  subcrys- 
talline  texture,  which  weather  into  ragged  honeycombed 
surfaces  or  dissolve  away  under  the  tropical  rainfall  into 
a  unique  configuration  of  roughly  serrated  hills,  basins, 
and  deep  drainage- ways  leading  to  the  sea.  Some  of  the 
basins  are  called  cockpits — wonderful  funnel-shaped  sink- 
holes, often  five  hundred  feet  or  more  in  depth,  with  steep 
acclivities  ascending  into  pointed  conical  hills  no  less 
angular  than  the  pits.  Then  there  are  gi*eat  basin-shaped 
valleys,  themselves  an  evolution  of  the  cockpits,  consist- 
ing of  deep  holes  with  wide',  flat  bottoms,  in  which  the 
plantations  are  situated,  inclosed  by  rugged  limestone 
walls  which  rise  from  twelve  to  twenty-five  hundred  feet 
above  them  (the  height  varying  in  different  localities)  and 
separate  the  valleys  by  wild  and  uninhabited  uplands. 
These  valleys  differ  from  one  another  chiefly  in  area.  In 
many  cases,  although  well  watered,  they  have  no  outlet, 
while  in  others  the  barriers  have  been  partially  eroded, 
and  they  are  drained  by  rivers  leading  to  the  sea. 

The  largest  and  most  populous  of  these  depressions  are 
those  of  St.-Thomas-in-the-Yale,  the  great  Vale  of  Claren- 
don surrounding  the  Clarendon  Mountains,  the  Hector 
River  basin  in  northern  Manchester,  and  the  Niagara 
River  Valley  along  the  boundary  of  St.  Elizabeth  and  St. 
James.  Montpelier  Valley,  along  Great  River  in  Han- 
over, and  Morgan's  Gut  Valley  in  Westmoreland,  are 
similar  basins  which  have  had  drainage-gaps  cut  through 
their  suiTOunding  barriers.  The  latter  now  constitutes  an 
interior  embayment  of  the  great  plain  of  Savana-la-Mar. 


192  CUBA  AND  PORTO  EICO 

The  beautiful  valley  of  St.-Thomas-in-the-Vale  is  almost 
circular  in  outline,  and  its  floor  has  a  diameter  of  ten 
miles.  Its  alluvial  bottom  is  largely  covered  with  charm- 
ing fields  and  villages.  The  mountainous  scenery  en- 
circling it  is  beyond  description.  From  Ewarton  can  be 
seen  a  band  of  white  limestone  rising  on  the  west  side  of 
the  valley  in  a  gentle  arch,  and  extending  for  miles  toward 
Moneague.  This  band  has  a  steep  face  and  is  crested  by 
rugged  points  forming  the  plateau  summit.  The  culmi- 
nation of  this  arch  is  Mount  Diablo.  Some  ten  copious 
streams  drain  this  valley,  and  gather  into  a  single  arterial 
outlet,  the  Rio  Cobre,  by  which  they  pass  to  the  sea 
through  the  narrow  gorge  of  the  picturesque  Bog  Walk 
canon.  These  streams  have  their  sources  in  springs  or 
caverns  in  lower  portions  of  the  hilly  borders  of  the 
valleys. 

The  Clarendon  Valley,  in  the  geographic  center  of  the 
island,  is  about  fifty  miles  long  and  twenty-five  miles 
wide.  Its  longer  direction  corresponds  with  that  of  the 
axis  of  the  plateau.  While  this  valley  is  of  the  same 
general  type  and  origin  as  that  of  St.-Thomas-in-the-Vale, 
it  differs  from  it  in  the  fact  that  steep  mountains  rise 
from  its  center  like  the  crown  of  a  hat  above  the  rim,  the 
valley  proper  being  an  annular  area  lying  between  these 
mountains  and  the  surrounding  white-limestone  escarp- 
ments. The  drainage,  like  that  of  St.-Thomas-in-the-Vale, 
concentrates  into  an  arterial  trunk  known  as  the  Minho, 
through  the  canon  of  which  it  escapes  to  the  south  coast. 

The  pouch-like  basin  of  Hector  River  is  almost  connected 
with  the  northwest  end  of  Clarendon  basin,  but  has  no 
direct  outlet  to  the  sea ;  they  are  separated  by  a  barrier 
of  low  hills.  The  stream  from  which  the  basin  takes  its 
name  rises  from  springs  at  its  west  end,  and  sinks  into 
the  limestones  to  the  east.  Cave  Valley  in  St.  Ann  Parish 
is  four  miles  in  diameter,  and  is  separated  from  the  Clar- 
endon Valley  by  a  limestone  ridge  less  than  a  mile  in 
width. 


EAST   INDIAN    COOLIES,   JAMAICA 


JAMAICA  193 

West  of  the  Clarendon  basin  similar  circular  depressions 
occur  at  short  intervals,  such  as  those  at  Oxford,  on  the 
boundary  of  the  parishes  of  Manchester  and  St.  Eliza- 
beth ;  the  great  head- water  amphitheater  of  Black  Elver, 
St.  Elizabeth ;  the  basin  of  Niagara  River ;  the  Mulgrave 
and  Ipswich  sinks;  the  Cambridge  basin;  the  basin  at 
the  head  of  Roaring  River,  and  the  King's  Valley  basin 
near  Jerusalem,  the  last  two  of  which  open  into  the 
Savana-la-Mar  ("  Plain  by  the  Sea  ").  Of  these  the  Niagara, 
Mulgrave,  and  Ipswich  basins  have  no  drainage  outlets. 
The  basins  above  described  constitute  a  line  of  depres- 
sions along  the  central  axis  of  the  plateau.  North  of 
these,  in  the  high  plateau  region  of  the  parishes  of  Tre- 
lawney  and  St.  Ann,  are  other  basins.  There  are  many 
other  smaller  and  less  important  sinks  in  the  western 
portion  of  the  island,  but  those  I  have  enumerated  show 
the  character  of  these  widely  distributed  phenomena. 
From  my  descriptions  it  wiU  be  seen  that  many  of  these 
sinks  have  no  outlet,  although  in  their  bottoms  may  be 
found  limpid  streams  of  water.  The  barriers  of  others, 
like  those  of  Anchovy,  Montpelier,  Cambridge,  and  Ches- 
terfield, lying  along  Great  River,  have  been  broken  by  cap- 
turing drainage,  and  they  have  become  connected  with 
one  another  or  with  coastal  plains.  Others,  like  the  Clar- 
endon and  St.  Thomas  valleys,  were  once  entirely  inclosed, 
but  in  later  times  have  found  narrow  outlets  through 
single  gorges.  The  coastward  barriers  of  still  others,  like 
the  basin  of  Westmoreland,  have  been  largely  destroyed. 

The  back-coast  border,  as  distinguished  from  the  narrow 
strips  of  coastal  plain  at  its  foot,  presents  a  steeply  sloping 
mountainous  sea-front  of  chalky  cliffs  rising  sharply  above 
the  sea,  except  where  cut  through  by  drainage ;  its  sky-line 
has  an  average  altitude  of  twelve  hundred  feet  along  the 
north  coast.  To  the  ordinary  traveler  this  topography  is 
principally  interesting  from  its  charming  scenic  features. 
To  the  student  it  reveals  a  series  of  most  interesting 
ancient  terrace  levels,  representing  the  successive  steps  in 

IS 


194  CUBA   AND   PORTO   EICO 

the  elevation  of  the  island  above  the  sea.  Some  of  these 
are  beautifully  shown  on  the  east  side  of  Montego  Bay, 
where  six  distinct  levels,  or  benches,  separated  by  deep 
slopes,  rise  above  one  another  in  stair-like  arrangement. 
At  no  other  single  locality  are  so  many  of  these  shown 
in  such  close  juxtaposition,  but  one  or  more  of  them  can 
be  individually  distinguished  at  many  localities  around  the 
island,  some  of  them  being  as  high  as  two  thousand  feet. 
At  a  single  glance  these  terraces  in  Jamaica  do  not  present 
the  perfection  of  the  allied  phenomena  exhibited  on  the 
southeast  coast  of  Cuba,  but,  nevertheless,  they  record  a 
similar  geologic  history. 

Natui-ally  the  integrity  of  these  benches  varies  with 
their  relative  age  and  altitude.  The  higher  ones  are  more 
fragmentary,  because  degradational  processes  have  longer 
been  working  upon  them.  Fragments  of  the  lower 
benches  are  better  preserved,  although  much  broken  by 
erosion,  while  none  is  as  perfect  in  contour  as  are  the 
benches  of  the  coastal  plain.  All  have  been  cut  across  by 
rivers,  etched  and  dissolved  by  rainfall,  and  undermined 
by  encroachment  of  the  waves ;  but  they  are,  nevertheless, 
remarkable  features. 

A  narrow  strip  of  low  coast  plain  occurs  here  and  there 
interruptedly  around  the  island,  between  the  sea  and  the 
back-coast  border.  In  some  places  this  is  an  old  beach 
only  a  few  feet  wide ;  in  others  it  has  greater  width,  and 
indents  the  back-coast  border  for  miles.  These  patches 
of  coastal  strip  are  either  elevated  reef  rock,  like  the 
seborucco  of  Cuba,  marginal  stretches  of  white  sea-sand, 
or  land-derived  alluvium ;  and  they  present  minor  features 
of  relief. 

The  coastal  plains  and  slopes  covered  with  alluvium 
are  often  extensive  areas,  especially  on  the  south  side  of 
the  island.  The  largest  of  these  is  the  plain  of  Liguanea, 
upon  which  Kingston  is  situated.  This  plain  is  over 
twenty-five  miles  in  length,  and  its  width,  which  averages 
six  miles,  is  greatest  near  its  western  end,  in  the  district 


JAMAICA  195 

of  Vere  Parish  in  Clarendon,  where  it  is  about  fifteen 
miles.  In  all,  it  includes  about  two  hundred  square 
miles. 

In  comparison  with  the  other  regions  of  the  island  the 
physical  aspect  of  this  plain  is  arid  and  sterile ;  the  flora, 
including  thorny  acacias  and  cactus,  tends  toward  the 
chaparral  type  characteristic  of  the  Rio  Grande  plain  of 
Mexico  and  Texas,  and  is  strikingly  unlike  the  delicate 
deciduous  tropical  flora  of  the  remainder  of  the  island. 
Back  of  Savana-la-Mar  there  is  another  extensive  plain 
which  continues  inward  nearly  one  half  the  distance  across 
the  island.  Plains  of  this  character  are  singularly  absent 
from  the  north  side,  except  at  Montego  Bay,  adjacent  to 
the  mouth  of  Montego  River,  where  they  are  less  feebly 
developed  than  on  the  south  coast. 

Jamaica  revels  in  an  abundance  of  streams— not  navi- 
gable rivers,  but  beautiful  and  rapidly  flowing  creeks,  rush- 
ing through  exquisite  valleys  over  stony  bottoms,  and 
affording  a  wealth  of  waters  for  the  needs  of  man.  They 
are  copious  and  voluminous,  but  not  so  deep  that  the 
dusky  damsel  need  submerge  her  cargo  or  unduly  elevate 
her  skirts,  as,  without  relaxing  her  majestic  strides,  she 
wades  across,  or  as  she  laves  to  snowy  whiteness  the  linen 
which  she  spreads  upon  the  banks  to  dry. 

Cutting-grass-spots  and  Deans  rivers  in  Westmoreland, 
and  Content  River  in  Hanover,  are  other  examples  of 
these  peculiar  streams.  It  is  supposed  that  their  waters, 
after  sinking  into  the  ground,  in  some  instances  find  a 
subterranean  way  coastward  through  the  porous  lime- 
stones. 

Besides  the  rivers  there  are  many  beautiful  pools  and 
springs.  The  numerous  mineral  springs  are  locally  noted 
f6r  their  curative  powers.  The  hottest  of  these  is  at 
Bath,  in  the  parish  of  St.  Thomas,  with  a  temperature 
of  126°  F.  The  waters  are  sulphuric  and  contain  a  large 
proportion  of  hydrosulphate  of  lime.  They  are  sup- 
posedly beneficial  for  gout,  rheumatism,  cutaneous  affec- 


196  CUBA  AND   PORTO   RICO 

tions,  etc.  The  bath  at  Milk  River,  in  the  district  of  Vere, 
is  another  thermal  spring  of  interest.  Its  waters  have  a 
temperature  of  92°  F.,  and  are  saline  and  purgative. 

The  drainage  of  the  Blue  Mountain  districts  is  frequent 
and  constant  in  occurrence  and  copious  in  run-off,  while 
in  the  region  of  the  limestone  plateau  it  is  superficially 
somewhat  deficient,  often  disappearing  into  underground 
caverns  or  breaking  out  of  them  in  a  remarkable  manner. 
As  a  whole,  the  island  presents  two  major  tj^es  of 
streams— one,  simple  rivers  flowing  to  either  coast;  and 
the  other,  the  rivers  of  the  interior  basins,  which  have  no 
outlet  to  the  sea. 

The  streams  of  the  first  class  in  the  mountain  region 
are  marked  by  deep  V-shaped  canons  in  their  upper 
courses,  and  great  deposits  of  ancient  alluvium  in  their 
lower  parts.  The  run-off  of  these  is  constant,  but  variable 
in  quantity,  owing  to  torrents.  The  streams  found  in  the 
basins  of  the  plateau  region  rise  from  springs,  flow  for 
short  distances,  then  disappear  into  the  ground  without 
visible  outlet  to  the  sea.  Of  this  type  of  rivers  are  the 
Minho;  Rio  Hoe,  near  Moneague;  Great  River,  in  the 
southeast  corner  of  St.  Ann;  Pedro  River,  which  sinks 
at  the  corner  of  St.  Ann,  Clarendon,  and  St.  Catherine 
parishes;  and  Yankee  and  Cave  rivers,  which  unite  and 
disappear  into  a  sink  on  the  borders  of  St.  Ann  and 
Clarendon.  The  latter  stream  is  ten  miles  long.  Hector 
River,  forming  the  boundary  of  Manchester  and  Tre- 
lawney,  sinks  at  the  northeast  corner  of  St.  Elizabeth; 
Hicks  River,  in  Trelawney ;  Pine  and  Dry  rivers,  in  the 
northern  part  of  St.  Elizabeth ;  Niagara,  Chester,  and 
Tangle  rivers,  in  the  southern  part  of  St.  James. 

Jamaica  also  possesses  many  interesting  caverns.  The 
Cave  of  Mexico  in  St.  Elizabeth,  through  which  Black 
River  flows,  is  probably  the  largest.  Cave  Hall  Pen,  near 
Dry  Harbor,  is  of  great  length  and  has  two  brauches ;  the 
various  rooms  are  designated  grottoes,  haUs,  domes,  and 
galleries,   and   are   lined  with   beautiful   stalactites  and 


JAMAICA  197 

stalagmites.  The  Grand  Cave  at  River  Head,  in  St.- 
Thomas-in-the-Vale,  is  a  very  remarkable  place.  The  Rio 
Cobre,  after  sinking  into  the  limestone,  again  emerges 
from  this  cavern.  Peru  Cave  in  'St.  Elizabeth,  the 
Mount  Plenty  Cave  in  St.  Ann,  the  Mouth  River  Cave 
in  Trelawney,  the  Portland  Cave  in  Vere,  the  Epping 
Forest  Cave  in  Manchester,  are  other  notable  caverns.  In 
some  of  these  interesting  remains  of  the  aborigines  have 
been  found. 

We  cannot  here  describe  all  the  many  objects  of  natural 
interest  on  the  island.  Its  mountains,  valleys,  rivers,  and 
coasts  are  everywhere  beautiful  to  behold.  It  is  a  land  of 
pleasant  driving  and  riding,  an  ideal  country  for  bicycling, 
and  every  portion  is  pleasing  to  the  eye.  The  highest 
mountain-peaks  are  easily  accessible  on  horseback.  Many 
go  to  Blue  Mountain  Peak  in  order  to  obtain  the  superb 
view  and  to  see  the  sunrise,  which  is  said  to  be  most  won- 
derful. I  almost  doubted  if  it  rose  at  all  the  day  we  made 
the  ascent,  so  thick  were  the  clouds  and  mist ;  but  we  were 
rewarded  by  other  sights. 

The  prospect  from  Newcastle  Barracks  also  excites  the 
enthusiasm  of  all  travelers.  The  wide  expanse  of  moun- 
tainous region,  rugged  with  sharp  declivities  and  ravines, 
is  covered  with  the  most  varied  vegetation.  Lying  far 
below  are  Kingston,  the  sea,  and  the  stretch  of  the  coast. 

Yet  with  all  of  its  great  differences  of  altitude,  its  rush- 
ing rivers,  the  wide  expanse  of  surrounding  sea,  the 
scenery  of  Jamaica  is  not  wild  or  crag-like,  nor  does  it 
impress  one  with  the  immensity  of  some  less  mountainous 
regions.  The  massive  grandeur  and  distant  outlines  of 
the  mountains  are  largely  lost,  owing  to  closeness  of  view 
and  the  enveloping  clouds.  It  is  only  the  exquisite  ver-^ 
dure  and  dehcacy  of  the  vegetation,  and  the  dewy  mists 
that  hover  over  them,  that  hold  tiie  rapt  attention.  In 
the  western  parishes  upon  the  limestone  plateau,  where 
sculptured  hills  and  valleys  everywhere  abound,  to  the 
wealth  of  form  are  added  marvelous  colors.    The  pale 


198  CUBA  AND  POBTO  BICO 

greens  of  the  bamboo  patches  rustling  like  feathery  plu- 
mage, the  dark  evergi*eens  of  the  pimento-  and  mango-trees, 
the  old  gray-greens  of  the  orchid-decked  ceibas,  and  the 
splashes  here  and  there  of  growing  cane-fields  of  an  inde- 
scribable pale  turquoise-blue  green,  adding  lighter  touches 
to  the  emerald  background  of  the  forest  setting,  overwhelm 
one  with  a  beauty  which  changes  with  every  passing  cloud 
or  angle  of  the  sun  into  wonderful  blues,  purples,  and 
olive  tints. 

This  gentler  aspect  of  the  landscape  is  not  diminished 
by  the  touch  of  man.  The  well-built  roads,  the  neat  stone 
walls,  the  comfortable  homes  of  the  planters,  the  sleek, 
browsing  cattle,  add  to  the  beauties  of  the  tropical  land- 
scape the  charms  of  the  English  countryside. 

Although  the  flora  of  Jamaica  is  of  the  same  tropical 
character  as  that  of  Cuba  and  Porto  Eico,  already  de- 
scribed, it  has  certain  local  variations.  Everywhere  there 
is  a  wealth  of  trees — mangos,  ceibas,  wild  oranges,  palms, 
plantains,  and  many  others.  One  looks  in  vain,  however, 
for  the  royal  palm,  the  pride  of  Cuba;  but  in  its  place 
Jamaica  possesses  the  pimento-  {Pimenta  officinalis)  or 
allspice-tree,  which  grows  nowhere  else.  The  giant  ceiba, 
the  Jamaica  cedar,  the  logwood,  and  fustic  are  other 
common  trees.  Grasses,  orchids,  and  small  flowers 
abound.  Begonias  and  ferns  border  the  roadsides,  and 
tradescantia  covers  the  stone  walls.  This  flora  shows 
considerable  variation  in  different  parts  of  the  island.  On 
the  southern  coast,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  it  is  of 
an  arid  type,  comprising  many  species  of  thorny  acacias, 
including  the  mesquit  of  our  own  southwestern  chap- 
arral, and  a  tall  species  of  cactus  of  the  Cereus  tribe. 
Other  than  these,  there  is  hardly  a  plant  on  the  island 
which  has  a  thorn.  In  the  western  portion  much  of  the 
country  has  the  aspect  of  an  open  forest  carpeted  with 
grass.  In  this  portion  the  pimento  abounds,  the  pro- 
duct of  which — our  commercial  allspice— is  a  source  of 
much  revenue  to  the  island.     Besides  the  native  flora, 


JAMAICA  199 

there  are  many  introduced  plants,  which  will  be  mentioned 
later  among  the  agricultural  products. 

Jamaica  cannot  boast  of  a  single  native  mammal, 
although  the  island  is  overrun  by  the  exotic  mongoos. 
This  small  weasel-like  animal  constantly  crosses  the  high- 
way before  the  traveler,  infests  the  yards,  and  seems  to 
pop  out  from  every  bush  and  stone.  It  was  originally 
introduced  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  the  Norway  rat, 
another  immigrant,  which  bade  fair  to  eat  up  the  cane- 
fields.  The  experiment  was  unsuccessful.  The  mongoos 
did  not  exhibit  any  particular  predilection  for  a  diet  of 
rat,  although  the  latter  was  so  frightened  that  it  was  forced 
to  change  its  habitat  from  the  ground  to  the  tree-tops, 
and,  instead,  feasted  upon  the  native  birds  and  reptiles, 
which  had  hitherto  benefited  the  island  by  keeping 
down  the  injurious  insect  life,  especially  the  field-tick, 
which,  with  the  destruction  of  its  natural  enemies,  in  turn 
began  to  increase  enormously.  Chickens,  puppies,  cats, 
and  other  domestic  animals  were  devoured  by  the  mon- 
goos, and  the  blacks  believe  the  dusky  piccaninny  was 
included  in  the  list.  In  later  years,  however,  the  ticks 
have  assailed  the  mongoos,  and  the  latter  is  succumbing 
to  them.  Besides  a  large  iguana,  there  are  many  smaller 
species  of  lizards  and  a  few  harmless  snakes. 

The  scorpion  and  centipede  are  slightly  poisonous,  but 
neither  very  dangerous  nor  abundant.  Ants,  mosquitos, 
and  sand-flies  are  common  in  the  lowlands,  but  the  uplands 
are  singularly  free  from  insect  pests.  The  butterflies, 
beetles,  and  fireflies  are  beautiful,  the  latter  including 
fourteen  kinds  besides  the  beautiful  Cuban  elaterid, 
which  carries  upon  each  shoulder  a  miniature  electric 
light.  Gosse,  the  naturalist,  who  lived  in  Jamaica  for 
eighteen  months,  enumerates  twenty  different  song-birds, 
besides  the  pan'ots,  pigeons,  and  a  great  variety  of  water- 
fowls. The  crocodile,  the  manatee,  and  the  West  Indian  seal 
inhabit  the  adjacent  sea  borders.  A  few  species  of  fresh- 
water fish  are  found  in  the  rivers.     Edible  marine  fish 


200  CUBA   AND   PORTO   EICO 

are  singularly  few  around  the  island.  As  in  Cuba,  land- 
snails  are  large  and  numerous.  Domestic  animals  of  all 
-  kinds,  except  the  sheep  and  goat,  abound.  The  island  has 
some  beautiful  estates  where  fine  breeds  of  cattle  are 
raised,  principally  for  the  purpose  of  producing  hardy 
oxen  for  the  sugar-plantations. 

Although  the  climate  of  Jamaica  varies  greatly  with 
altitude  and  topographic  situation,  it  is  in  general  pleas- 
ant, healthful,  and  salubrious,  the  cold  northern  winds 
which  affect  Cuba  being  hardly  felt,  and  the  temperature, 
y  therefore,  being  much  more  uniform  throughout  the  year. 
The  low  sea-coasts  are  the  warmest  portions,  the  larger 
part  of  the  habitable  island,  at  altitudes  of  from  one  to 
three  thousand  feet,  being  decidedly  cooler.  The  southern 
sea-coast,  at  the  foot  of  the  Blue  Mountain  range,  is  warm 
and  arid,  much  like  the  Santiago  coast  of  Cuba.  As  one 
ascends  the  slopes  the  precipitation  increases  and  the  tem- 
perature falls  rapidly,  until  in  the  higher  portions  the  cli- 
mate is  wet  and  cool.  The  mean  temperature  at  the  coast 
is  78.2°  F. ;  at  2000  feet,  73° ;  at  5000  feet,  62.6° ;  at  5500 
feet,  60° ;  at  7400  feet,  55.7°. 

At  Kingston,  one  of  the  hottest  and  driest  places  on 
the  island,  the  highest  temperature  during  ten  years 
was  89.7°  F.,  and  the  minimum  67.8° ;  the  maximum  for 
the  period  averaging  87.8°,  and  the  minimum  70.7°, 
showing  a  range  of  only  17°. 

The  climate  of  the  plateau  region  .is  especially  pleasant, 
the  temperature  in  St.  Elizabeth,  for  instance,  having  an 
annual  variation  of  only  9°,  fluctuating  between  a  mini- 
mum of  67°  and  a  maximum  of  75°. 

The  rainfall  at  Kingston  is  only  44  inches,  while  on  the 
north  side  of  the  island  it  is  88,  even  reaching  100  inches 
upon  the  higher  mountain  slopes.  The  average  for  the 
whole  island  is  66. 

Eesidents  of  Jamaica  are  naturally  subject  to  tropical 
diseases,  such  as  malarial  fevers,  dysentery,  and  diarrhea ; 
but  owing  to  the  perfect  system  of  local  sanitation  and 


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JAMAICA  201 

t 

quarantine,  the  island  is  remarkably  healthful  and  ordinarily 
as  free  from  epidemics  as  our  own  Southern  seaboard,  the 
death-rate  being  only  20.9  per  1000  for  the  island.  These 
figures,  when  contrasted  with  the  vital  statistics  of  Cuba, 
Haiti,  and  Martinique,  where  no  serious  efforts  are  made 
to  offset  the  natural  drawbacks  of  tropical  climate,  show 
that  the  mortality  of  the  Antilles  can  be  greatly  reduced. 

The  quarantine  establishment  is  most  thoroughly 
organized.  Competent  officials  guard  every  port,  and  a 
fine  lazaretto  has  been  constructed  at  Green  Bay,  opposite 
Port  Royal,  with  first-class  accommodations  for  those  who 
may  be  detained.  The  quarantine  laws  are  enforced  with 
the  greatest  severity,  so  much  so  that  intercourse  with 
Cuba,  Haiti,  and  other  places  where  j'^ellow  fever  per- 
manently exists  through  neglect,  is  almost  prohibited, 
although  this  practically  isolates  Jamaica  commercially 
from  near-by  lands  with  which  much  trade  might  be 
developed. 

Not  only  is  every  precaution  taken  to  guard  against 
the  introduction  of  disease,  but  the  island  is  kept  in  a 
thoroughly  sanitary  condition.  Cleanliness  is  stringently 
enforced  and  the  water-supply  carefully  guarded  from 
pollution  by  a  central  board  of  health,  with  district  medi- 
cal officers  in  every  parish,  assisted  by  the  constabulary 
and  backed  by  the  support  of  public  opinion. 

Notwithstanding  these  stringent  precautions,  yellow 
fever  is  occasionally  introduced  into  the  island,  as  it  is  in 
our  own  Southern  cities.  In  1897  an  epidemic  of  this 
disease  was  brought  by  Cuban  refugees  who  smuggled 
themselves  into  the  country.  Ordinarily  the  island  is  free 
from  this  scourge,  which  is  in  no  manner  indigenous. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

JAMAICA  (Continued) 

A  model  British  colony.  Respect  for  law  and  order.  Early  history  and 
administration.  Agriculture.  Rise  of  the  fruit  industry.  Commerce. 
Railways.     Excellent  highways. 

THE  universal  aspect  of  order  and  the  respect  for  law 
that  everywhere  prevail  in  Jamaica  are  no  less  con- 
spicuous than  the  natural  beauties  of  the  island,  and  are 
noted  by  any  one  who  has  traveled  in  the  more  unruly 
places  of  the  tropics.  The  dread  of  unconscious  violation 
of  some  trivial  law  which  haunts  one  in  Cuba,  the  feeling 
of  being  watched  as  in  Porto  Rico,  the  suspicion  of  some 
other  person's  hand  in  your  pocket  as  in  Mexico,  the  fear 
of  brushing  against  prevailing  contagion  at  every  step  as 
in  Martinique,  Santo  Domingo,  and  Haiti,  are  sensations 
which  do  not  worry  the  traveler  here.  The  stranger  is 
welcomed  with  a  sincere  hospitality  and  courteous  greet- 
ing ;  the  island  is  clean,  and  the  laws  are  for  the  protection 
of  the  visitor  as  well  as  of  the  resident— not  the  robbery  of 
the  individual  or  the  enrichment  of  the  official.  Thieves 
are  confined  in  prison ;  those  infected  with  loathsome  dis- 
eases are  isolated  together;  rigid  quarantine  keeps  con- 
tagion out,  and  health-officials  attend  to  public  sanitation. 
Neatly  uniformed  constabulary  of  respectful  mien  and 
open  eyes  see  that  the  laws  are  obeyed,  and  the  poorest 

202 


JAMAICA  203 

negro  as  well  as  the  richest  planter  feels  that  they  are  for 
his  special  benefit  and  protection,  and  respects  them  in  a 
spirit  which  is  not  found  even  in  our  own  country.  In 
fact,  in  the  government  of  Jamaica  we  have  an  example  of 
that  perfection  of  colonial  administration  in  which  Eng- 
land excels. 

The  name  Jamaica  is  derived  from  a  native  word, 
"  Xaymaca,"  signifying  the  "  island  of  fountains."  Among 
illiterate  natives  the  name  is  still  pronounced  "  Hamiky." 
The  island  was  originally  settled  by  the  Spaniards  in 
1509.  In  contrast  with  the  Spanish  mode  of  procedure  in 
the  other  Antilles,  the  first  governor  reduced  the  natives 
without  bloodshed;  but  his  successors  carried  on  a  work 
of  extermination.  During  the  century  and  a  half  of 
Spanish  occupation  several  small  towns  were  settled,  and 
the  Castilian  nomenclature,  though  now  sadly  corrupted, 
was  given  to  many  of  the  natural  features.  Among  these 
were  the  names  of  Manteca,  now  corrupted  into  Montego ; 
Mont  Agua,  now  Moneague;  Boca  del  Agua,  now  Bog 
Walk ;  and  Agua  Alta,  now  Wag  Water. 

In  1665  an  English  fleet  sent  by  Cromwell  to  capture 
Santo  Domingo,  having  been  repulsed  from  that  island, 
indemnified  itself  by  seizing  Jamaica.  At  that  time  the 
population  was  only  three  thousand,  one  half  of  whom 
were  Spaniards.  The  latter  migrated  from  the  island  to 
Cuba,  but  their  race  imprint  was  left  upon  the  other  half 
of  the  people  who  remained,  as  is  still  shown  in  certain 
words  of  the  language  and  habits  of  the  island.  England 
immediately  began  colonization  with  settlers  of  all  kinds 
drawn  from  the  West  Indies,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  and 
since  the  conquest  Jamaica  has  remained  a  loyal  English 
colony,  devoted  to  the  government,  customs,  and  tra- 
ditions of  the  mother-country.  Owing  to  beneficent 
privileges  granted  the  colonists,  the  population  rapidly 
increased.  Although  the  English  official  and  landlord 
always  constituted  the  ruling  class,  there  were  among  its 
accessions  a  large  number  of  African  slaves  and  Jewish 


204  CUBA  AND   POKTO   EICO 

traders.  The  mixture  of  these  peculiar  elements  of  the 
seventeenth-century  population — Spanish,  mulattos,  ne- 
groes, apprenticed  Scotch,  Irish,  and  English  peasantry, 
Minorcan  Jews— has  gone  far  toward  producing  the  pecu- 
liarities and  language  of  the  lower  classes  of  the  present 
Jamaican  people. 

Shortly  after  the  establishment  of  English  control, 
Jamaica  became  a  busy  center  of  bucaneering  and  the 
slave-trade.  The  old  town  of  Port  Royal,  through  its 
superior  advantages  as  a  maritime  and  naval  station, 
became  a  great  stronghold.  It  was  here  that  the  famous 
corsair  Morgan  prepared  his  expeditions,  and  in  1762  Lord 
Abercrombie  organized  the  land  and  naval  forces  that 
reduced  Havana ;  and  here  the  slave-traders  brought  their 
newly  captured  negroes  from  Africa,  to  be  distributed 
throughout  the  West  Indies  and  tropical  mainland. 

Jamaica,  according  to  Bryan  Edwards,  attained  the 
meridian  of  its  prosperity  in  1780,  at  which  time  it  was 
occupied  by  large  plantations  worked  by  African  slaves, 
and  operated  by  resident  English  owners  who  lived  in 
princely  state.  The  island  was  then  the  most  productive 
of  England's  West  Indian  colonies.  The  same  author 
estimates  that  2,130,000  blacks  were  imported  by  the 
Bristol  and  Liverpool  slave-traders  between  the  years 
1680  and  1786,  and  that  610,000  of  these  were  landed  at 
Port  Royal. 

In  1807  the  importation  of  slaves  was  abolished  by 
Great  Britain,  and  in  1833  the  remaining  309,000  slaves 
were  emancipated,  the  owners  being  liberally  remunerated. 
Owing  to  the  English  system  of  slavery,  as  distinguished 
from  that  of  the  Spanish  colonies,  concerning  which  we 
have  spoken  in  our  descriptions  of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico, 
the  freeing  of  the  blacks  resulted  in  the  almost  total  ruin 
of  the  Jamaican  plantations,  and  the  island  has  never  re- 
gained its  agricultural  and  commercial  prestige  since  that 
event.  The  free  negro  preferred  to  earn  his  living  by  in- 
dependent efforts,  and  showed  a  dislike  for  plantation 
labor.    The  better  class  of  landlords  pocketed  the  profits 


JAMAICA  205 

of  emancipation,  sailed  back  to  England,  and  left  their 
estates  to  degenerate  in  the  hands  of  agents  and  overseers. 

The  history  of  the  island  has  been  unmarked  by  any 
serious  political  disturbances,  excepting  an  occasional 
uprising  of  the  slaves  and  rebellion  of  the  maroons. 

During  her  possession  of  the  island  England  has  made 
various  experiments  in  devising  a  suitable  form  of  govern- 
ment for  the  colony.  It  was  at  first  under  a  military 
jurisdiction.  Then  came  a  period  of  general  assemblies 
under  a  governor  appointed  from  England,  which  lasted 
two  hundred  years ;  then  in  1866  a  crown  government,  with 
a  legislature  consisting  exclusively  of  official  and  nomi- 
nated members.  In  1884  the  present  mixed  legislative 
system  of  nominated  and  elected  members  came  into 
force. 

The  island  is  divided  into  three  counties  and  twelve 
parishes.  The  counties  are  Surrey  on  the  east,  Middlesex 
in  the  center,  and  Cornwall  on  the  west.  The  function  of 
the  county  divisions  is  not  clear,  the  parishes  being  the 
chief  subdivisions,  each  of  which  sends  a  representative 
to  the  colonial  assembly. 

The  executive  consists  of  a  colonial  governor  ap- 
pointed by  the  crown,  and  having  strong  supervisory 
powers,  assisted  by  a  colonial  secretary,  an  attorney- 
general,  a  director  of  public  works,  a  collector-general, 
and  the  senior  officer  in  command  of  the  military  forces. 
The  legislative  powers  are  vested  in  a  council,  or  colo- 
nial legislature,  consisting  of  nine  elected  members,  two 
nominated  members,  and  the  administrative  officers  above 
mentioned.  There  is  also  a  privy  council.  The  adminis- 
trative forces  of  the  island  are  thoroughly  organized 
under  a  most  efficient  system  of  civil  service,  admission 
to  which  is  gained  by  fair  competitive  examination.  The 
departments  include  land,  auditor's,  treasury,  customs, 
excise,  and  internal  and  revenue  departments.  The 
postal  and  telegraph  service  is  thoroughly  equipped.  The 
object  of  the  government  medical  service  is  to  diffuse 
medical  assistance  throughout  the  several  parishes,  by 


206  CUBA   AND   PORTO   BICO 

inducing  practitioners  to  locate  themselves  in  districts 
which  without  some  contribution  from  the  government 
would  be  altogether  destitute  of  medical  aid  and  advice. 
Under  this  department  there  are  eighteen  public  hospitals 
throughout  the  island,  with  a  total  of  1117  beds. 

The  police  system  is  most  thorough,  consisting  of  a 
constabulary  of  seven  hundred  and  seventy  men,  with 
over  one  hundred  stations  scattered  throughout  the  island, 
and  several  prisons  and  reformatories,  in  which  prevails 
the  mark  system  of  the  English  convict  prisons,  after 
which  the  Elmira  (New  York)  Eeformatory  is  modeled. 
The  prison  system  includes  a  penitentiary  with  male  and 
female  divisions,  and  industrial  schools  and  reformatories 
for  both  sexes. 

Not  the  least  interesting  part  of  the  Jamaican  adminis- 
tration is  the  thoroughness  with  which  statistics  are 
gathered.  An  excellent  registration  department  records 
the  births,  deaths,  baptisms,  and  marriages,  while  infor- 
mation can  be  readily  obtained  on  any  desired  subject. 
There  is  also  a  board  of  supervision,  having  charge  of  out- 
door relief  of  the  poor.  The  government  printing-office, 
the  botanical  gardens,  and  the  government  laboratory  are 
also  embraced  in  the  administrative  organizations. 

A  notable  public  feature  is  the  Institute  of  Jamaica, 
located  at  Kingston.  This  is  a  public  lyceum  and  museum 
maintained  at  colonial  expense.  The  library  is  rich  in 
Jamaican  and  early  West  Indian  literature,  while  the 
museum  presents  a  splendid  illustration  of  the  island 
fauna,  flora,  and  archaeological  objects  of  interest.  Public 
lectures  are  given,  and  the  publications  of  a  scientific  and 
historic  nature  are  appreciated  throughout  the  world. 

The  courts  are  thoroughly  organized,  embracing  a 
supreme  court  of  judicature  with  nine  justices,  from 
which  in  certain  cases  appeal  may  be  taken  to  the  council. 
This  court  also  has  supervision  over  the  findings  of  the 
lower  court  in  British  Honduras.  There  is  an  encum- 
bered-estate  court,  an  admiralty  court,  resident  magistrate 
courts,  and  courts  of  petty  service. 


JAMAICA  207 

Grood  schools  are  everywhere  provided,  and  attendance 
is  compulsory.  There  were  nine  hundred  and  twenty-four 
government  schools  in  1896,  having  an  enrolled  atten- 
dance of  one  hundred  thousand  children.  There  are  nine 
hundred  and  twelve  public  free  schools  throughout  the 
island.  The  figures  in  the  last  report  of  the  superinten- 
dent inspector  of  schools  show  an  unprecedented  advance 
in  attendance,  due  to  the  abolition  of  school  fees  by  the 
legislature  in  the  spring  of  1892.  The  effect  of  this  has 
been  shown  in  the  rapid  decrease  of  illiteracy.  There  is 
a  government  training-college  for  female  teachers,  under 
the  charge  of  educated  Englishwomen.  Sixty  male  stu- 
dents are  also  being  trained  at  a  local  educational  insti- 
tution in  Kingston  at  government  expense.  There  are  also 
a  number  of  free  schools,  denominational  schools,  high 
schools,  and  industrial  schools.  In  addition  to  the  local 
educational  institutions,  scholarships  are  provided  where- 
by residents  of  the  island  can  obtain  higher  education  in 
England.  The  island  is  one  of  the  centers  for  the  local 
examinations  held  by  the  University  of  Cambridge. 

While  the  majority  of  the  Jamaicans  belong  to  the 
Church  of  England,  the  latter  was  disestablished  and  dis- 
endowed as  the  ofi&cial  religion  of  the  island  in  1870.  This 
church  has  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  parishes  through- 
out the  island.  The  Scotch  Kirk,  the  Catholics,  the  Bap- 
tists, the  Presbyterians,  the  Congregational  Union,  the 
Wesleyans,  the  United  Methodists,  the  Christians,  Mora- 
vians, and  Hebrews  are  all  numerously  represented.  The 
Jamaicans,  as  a  rule,  are  remarkably  punctilious  in  their 
church  attendance,  and  on  Sundays  the  country  roads  are 
lined  with  the  people  going  to  and  from  the  numerous  neat 
chapels  everywhere  to  be  found. 

The  general  revenue  for  the  year  1895-96  amounted  to 
$3,069,000.  Of  this  sum  more  than  one  half  was  raised  by 
import  duties,  in  accordance  with  the  principle  of  indirect 
taxation  which  prevails  in  all  the  British  colonies.  The 
remainder  was  raised  by  excise  duties,  principally  on  rum 
manufacture.    The  total  expenditure  for  the  same  year 


208 


CUBA    AND    PORTO    RICO 


amounted  to  $2,987,666.  The  public  debt  is  $7,581,000, 
most  of  which  is  for  the  recently  constructed  railway 
systems,  irrigation  canals,  and  new  bridges. 

In  general  the  government  of  Jamaica  is  humane, 
civilized,  and  just.  In  fact,  the  perfection  of  its  oi'ganiza- 
tion  and  working  seems  too  good  for  an  island  whose 
population  is  not  yet  entirely  out  of  the  savage  state. 
What  might  Cuba  have  been  with  such  a  government ! 

Agi'iculture  is  either  flourishing  or  decadent  in  Jamaica, 
according  to  the  point  of  view.  The  large  English  estate- 
owners,  shorn  of  the  old-time  profits  of  sugar-culture, 
believe  that  the  island  is  in  its  decadence,  because  of  the 
extermination  of  this  industry.  Americans  and  the  natives 
believe,  however,  that  Jamaica  has  passed  through  the 
crucial  tribulations  resulting  from  its  former  dependence 
upon  the  sugar-producers,  and  is  entering,  for  the  first 
time,  upon  a  state  of  true  prosperity,  owing  to  the  in- 
creasing number  of  diversified  small  farms. 

The  island  embraces  about  2,700,000  acres,  of  which 
about  80,000  acres,  or  2.97  per  cent.,  are  estimated  to  be 
occupied  by  swamps  or  lands  otherwise  useless  for  agii- 
culture.  About  12  per  cent.,  or  330,000  acres,  are  covered 
by  forests.  There  are  now  beneficially  occupied  in  culti- 
vation about  694,000  acres,  or  a  little  more  than  one  fourth 
of  the  whole  cultivable  area.  The  following  table  shows 
the  area  occupied  by  each  crop  and  the  annual  value  of  the 
export  products. 


Ground  provisions 

Pimento 

Sugar-cane 

Coflfee 

Bananas  

Cocoanuts 

Cocoa  

Tobacco  

Ginger 

Guinea-grass 

Common  pasture  . 


95,808 

63,193 

30,036 

25,559 

19,227 

10,940 

1,632 

261 

84 

126,877 

342,020 


$2,055,510 

1,617,684 

1,594,048 

116,024 

99,881 


JAMAICA  209 

The  circumstances  of  sugar-raising  in  Jamaica  are  of  a 
special  character,  and  cannot  be  exactly  compared  with 
those  existing  in  the  other  British  colonies,  which  are 
solely  dependent  upon  this  product,  and  are  suffering 
financial  ruin,  owing  to  the  competition  of  the  beet-root. 
The  cultivation  of  sugar-cane,  instead  of  being  the  sole 
agricultural  industry,  as  in  many  of  the  other  West  Indies, 
constitutes  only  nineteen  per  cent,  thereof.  The  majority 
of  the  Jamaican  sugar-estates  are  small,  the  average  having 
only  one  hundred  and  seventy-eight  acres,  and  they  are 
for  the  most  part  widely  dispersed,  so  that  plants  for 
grinding  cannot  be  conveniently  established.  The  cost  of 
management  is  therefore  increased.  The  product  is 
largely  manufactured  into  rum,  the  annual  output  of 
which  is  a  little  over  two  million  gallons.  The  quality  of 
the  cane  is  fair.  Borer  and  fungoid  diseases  have  not 
seriously  affected  it,  as  in  the  Lesser  Antilles.  Before 
slavery  was  abolished,  Jamaica  was  one  of  the  largest 
sugar-producing  islands.  In  1805  it  exported  one  hundred 
and  fifty-one  thousand  hogsheads  of  sugar  and  five  million 
gallons  of  rum ;  but  the  planters  seemed  utterly  incapable 
of  adapting  themselves  to  the  new  conditions  of  labor  after 
the  freeing  of  the  blacks,  and  many  of  the  former  cane- 
fields  are  now  turned  into  ruinate.  The  decay  of  the  sugar 
industry,  however,  has  been  accompanied  by  a  progressive 
increase  in  the  cultivation  of  more  diversified  products 
and  the  acquirement  of  small  estates  by  the  black  inhabi- 
tants. A  department  of  gardens  and  plantations,  under 
capable  and  experienced  men,  has  carried  on  experiments 
which,  while  supporting  the  old,  have  encouraged  the  estab- 
lishment of  many  new  and  promising  agricultural  indus- 
tries. Furthermore,  the  government  has  been  fortunately 
administered  during  that  period  by  progressive  and  able 
governors,  who  have  constantly  adopted  a  policy  whereby 
it  was  possible  to  extend  the  railways  and  improve  com- 
munication by  parochial  roads  and  the  encouragement  of 
rapid  steamship  lines  to  the  United  States,  and  now  the 
u  — 

V 


210  CUBA  AND   POKTO  EICO 

people  are  finding  a  source  of  livelihood  and  profit  in  pro- 
ducts which  were  disdained  and  considered  trivial  by  the 
former  planters.  A  few  years  ago  a  fine  type  of  the  old- 
time  Cape  Cod  skippers,  Captain  Baker,  saw  the  possibili- 
ties of  the  island  in  the  fruit  line.  He  established  what 
is  now  the  Boston  Fruit  Company,  capitalized  at  several 
millions  of  dollars,  which  has  stimulated  and  encoui-aged 
the  planting  of  banana-  and  orange-trees  all  over  the  island. 
At  every  little  port  the  stations  of  this  company  are 
located,  and  steamers  run  almost  daily  in  the  fruit  season, 
conveying  the  product  to  the  United  States.  This  has 
brought  to  the  island  a  welcome  addition  of  money,  which, 
distributed  both  to  the  small  producer  and  the  hordes  of 
laborers  required  in  handling  the  fruit,  has  proved  bene- 
ficial to  all  classes. 

Up  to  the  time  of  the  great  frost  in  Florida,  in  the 
winter  of  1895-96,  the  Jamaicans  never  dreamed  of  the 
possibihty  of  remuneration  from  orange-culture.  Scat- 
tered over  the  island  were  thousands  of  orange- trees,  some 
planted  for  ornament.or  private  use,  others  the  result  of  acci- 
dental propagation.  Owing  to  the  destruction  of  the  Flor- 
ida fruit  during  the  year  mentioned,  American  merchants 
undertook  to  gather  Jamaica  oranges,  and  some  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  thousand  barrels  were  shipped,  much  to  the 
profit  and  delight  of  the  Jamaicans,  who  immediately  availed 
themselves  of  Captain  Baker's  offer  to  have  the  old  trees 
grafted,  at  his  expense,  with  stocks  of  the  superior  Florida 
fruit.  The  wild,  or  Seville,  orange  grows  everywhere 
throughout  the  island,  but  the  marmalade  on  every  table 
is  made  in  Scotland  from  Sicilian  oranges  and  possibly 
Jamaica  sugar. 

The  grape-fruit  and  shaddock  members  of  the  orange 
tribe  attain  great  perfection  here.  Lemons  and  limes  are 
little  cultivated.  Grapes,  pineapples,  new  potatoes,  toma- 
toes, and  other  fresh  vegetables  for  use  in  America  are 
receiving  some  attention  on  the  island,  and  a  valuable 
trade  in  these  commodities  is  being  created.    Attempts 


JAMAICA  211 

are  also  being  made  to  establish  a  fmit-trade  between 
Jamaica  and  England  by  means  of  ships  fitted  with  refri- 
gerator chambers,  and  capable  of  performing  the  voyage 
within  fourteen  or  sixteen  days.  There  is  little  doubt  that 
before  long  Jamaica  fruit  will  be  regularly  shipped  to  that 
country. 

No  Jamaican  of  the  old  school  ever  thought  of  planting 
tobacco.  In  1886,  at  the  end  of  the  great  revolution,  a 
family  of  Cuban  exiles  came  to  the  island  and  began  the 
cultivation  of  tobacco  and  the  manufacture  of  cigars. 
Now  small  colonies  of  Cubans  can  be  found  at  many  places 
throughout  the  island,  growing  this  crop,  and  Jamaican 
cigars,  manufactured  in  Kingston,  are  smoked  from  Colon 
to  Barbados,  and  have  practically  supplanted  the  Havana 
article  in  the  West  Indian  markets.  Tobacco  for  local 
consumption  is  twisted  into  long  ropes  and  sold  by  the 
yard. 

Jamaica  coffee  is  of  three  well-marked  qualities.  The 
sort  that  obtains  the  highest  price  is  grown  on  the  south- 
ern slopes  of  the  Blue  Mountains,  at  elevations  of  from 
three  to  five  thousand  feet.  The  quantity  produced 
is  small,  probably  not  one  third  of  the  whole,  but  the 
prices  obtained  are  high,  ranging  from  twenty-five  to 
forty  dollars  per  hundredweight.  This  is  the  famous  Blue 
Mountain  coffee,  every  grain  of  which  is  carefully  gathered 
and  shipped  to  England,  where  it  is  said  to  possess  pecu- 
liar qualities  for  blending.  None  of  it  is  consumed  upon 
the  island.  While  stopping  at  one  of  the  largest  estates 
overnight,  we  observed  that  no  coffee  was  served  either 
for  supper  or  for  breakfast,  the  overseer  informing  us  that, 
although  he  had  been  there  for  many  years,  he  had  never 
been  permitted  to  use  a  single  berry  for  his  own  consump- 
tion. The  coffee-estates  are  most  economically  managed. 
In  looking  over  the  books,  which  are  kept  with  great 
accuracy,  I  found  that  every  expenditure,  however  trivial, 
was  most  carefully  planned  for,  even  down  to  including 
twopence  a  week  to  feed  the  watch-dog.    The  Blue  Moun- 


212  CUBA   AND   PORTO    KICO 

tain  estates  are  situated  on  such  steep  slopes  that  one 
naturally  wonders  how  the  field-hands  maintain  a  vertical 
position  while  cultivating  them.  From  the  sea  these  plan- 
tations appear  far  above  as  small  patches  of  brown  in  the 
general  mantle  of  green  vegetation. 

The  next  grade  of  coffee  is  grown  in  the  hills  of  the 
plateau  region  of  Manchester  and  St.  Ann's,  at  elevations 
of  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  hundred  feet.  This  obtains 
only  haK  the  price  of  the  Blue  Mountain  variety. 

Large  quantities  of  coffee  are  also  grown  in  small  patches 
by  the  negroes.  This  is  badly  cured  and  sold  to  local 
merchants,  or  retailed  by  the  gill  and  pint  in  the  little 
markets.  This  coffee  of  the  common  people  brings  only 
one  fourth  the  price  of  the  best  quality. 

It  has  been  shown  that  if  the  settlers  were  provided 
with  a  central  factory,  worked  by  people  who  thoroughly 
understood  the  curing  of  coffee,  the  value  would  be  in- 
creased at  least  twenty  per  cent.  It  is  estimated  that  bad 
methods  of  culture  and  defective  curing  result  in  an 
annual  loss  to  the  island  of  nearly  a  million  dollars.  The 
beny  was  formerly  cultivated  much  more  extensively 
than  now,  and  there  were  three  times  as  much  of  it 
shipped  in  1814  as  in  1895  and  1896.  There  are  many 
abandoned  estates  in  the  Blue  Mountains,  which  could  be 
made  productive  by  judicious  cultivation  and  manuring. 
Some  of  these,  latterly  bought  by  settlers,  have  been 
brought  into  an  excellent  state  of  cultivation.  There  is 
evidently  a  promising  field  for  development  in  this  direc- 
tion, both  in  the  Blue  Mountains  and  in  the  coffee  districts 
of  the  west. 

Liberian  coffee  is  being  largely  introduced  into  Jamaica, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  it  will  grow  in  sheltered  localities 
with  a  moist  climate,  at  a  lower  altitude  than  the  other  vari- 
eties, and  even  on  some  of  the  old  abandoned  sugar-estates. 
It  is  more  hardy  and  consequently  less  subject  to  disease 
than  Arabian  coffee,  and  can  be  cultivated  in  connection 
with  the  shade  of  the  bananas,  now  so  extensively  planted. 


JAMAICA  213 

Cocoa  cultivation  was  introduced  into  Jamaica  by  the 
Spaniards,  but  subsequently  dropped  by  the  English. 
Under  the  fostering  administration  of  the  botanical  de- 
partment, it  has  been  latterly  encouraged  again,  and 
thousands  of  acres  formerly  devoted  to  sugar  may  be 
utilized  by  this  remunerative  plant.  Common  allspice, 
which  occurs  in  commerce  as  small  dry  berries  resembling 
black  pepper,  grows  upon  the  pimento-tree,  which  is 
indigenous  to  the  island.  The  cultivation  of  this  is  of 
the  simplest  character.  The  trees  are  established  from 
seeds  distributed  by  birds,  and  require  only  to  be  thinned 
and  kept  free  from  undergrowth.  The  crop  is  irregular  in 
quantity,  and  the  price  of  late  years  has  been  exceptionally 
low,  although  Jamaica  is  the  only  country  that  produces 
this  article.  In  the  shade  of  the  pimento-trees  cattle  are 
raised  on  a  rich  grass  called  the  pimento-grass,  that  thrives 
on  dry  limestone  soil.  Allspice  may  therefore  be  regarded 
as  only  a  by-product  on  lands  usually  devoted  to  stock- 
raising. 

Ginger  is  another  industry  that  is  especially  associated 
with  Jamaica.  This  can  be  grown  in  almost  every  part 
of  the  tropics,  but  that  of  the  rich  soils  in  the  mountains 
of  Jamaica  usually  brings  the  highest  prices.  The  culti- 
vation is  an  exhaustive  one,  and  land  that  has  borne  a 
few  ginger-crops  has  hitherto  been  abandoned  as  useless. 
Efforts  are  now  being  made  to  restore  fertility  to  these 
lands  by  the  use  of  suitable  manures. 

It  is  needless  to  review  all  the  other  small  agricultural 
industries  now  existing  or  capable  of  being  called  into 
existence  in  Jamaica.  The  exports  of  annatto,  which 
every  American  sees  at  least  three  times  a  day  in  the 
golden  yellow  of  the  butter  upon  his  table,  lime-juice,  dye- 
woods,  bitter  woods,  lancewood  bars,  satinwood,  ebony, 
coco-wood,  lignum-vit8B,  walking-sticks  (from  thinnings 
of  the  pimento-trees),  divi-divi,  tamarinds,  sarsaparilla, 
and  nutmegs  are  all  more  or  less  prominent.  There  are 
also  medicinal  plants;  essential  oils;  other  spices  besides 


214  CUBA  AND  PORTO  RICO 

the  allspice,  such  as  cardamoms,  nutmeg,  black  pepper, 
cinnamon,  and  vanilla,  besides  Sisal  hemp,  cassava,  Chile 
peppers,  castor-oil,  and  cinchona  barks.  All  of  these 
already  exist  in  the  island ;  and  are  only  waiting  for  favor- 
able circumstances  to  be  developed  into  important  indus- 
tries. They  could  be  greatly  increased  at  any  time  if 
special  attention  were  devoted  to  them. 

Not  the  least  important  feature  of  the  Jamaican  agri- 
culture is  the  government  instruction  and  experimenta- 
tion. GTrants  of  money  are  given  to  elementary  schools 
for  the  teaching  of  agriculture  as  a  special  subject.  In 
addition,  all  country  schools  are  expected  to  teach  the 
elementary  principles  as  a  part  of  the  general  course. 
Special  courses  in  agriculture  are  given  to  the  students 
of  the  normal  schools,  and  practical  demonstrations  and 
lectures  are  regularly  delivered  in  certain  districts  by 
the  officers  of  the  botanical  department,  which  also  issues 
a  monthly  bulletin  dealing  with  agricultural  and  horticul- 
tural interests.  Further,  an  industrial  school  is  attached 
to  the  Hope  Gardens,  where  the  boys  receive  practical  in- 
struction from  the  superintendent.  Apprentices  brought 
here  from  the  west  coast  of  Africa  for  training  are  now 
engaged  in  agricultural  work  in  their  own  country. 

The  Royal  Jamaica  Society  of  Agriculture  was  estab- 
lished in  1885,  and,  according  to  the  "  Jamaican  Handbook," 
it  is  entitled  to  be  classed  among  the  most  useful  and 
valuable  institutions  of  the  island.  The  Jamaica  Agricul- 
tural Society,  a  more  recent  creation,  publishes  an  excellent 
monthly  journal.  There  are  besides  sugar-plantation 
associations,  pen-keepers'  associations,  and  local  agricul- 
tural societies. 

All  in  all,  agriculture  in  Jamaica  is  in  a  far  more  healthy 
condition  than  in  the  other  islands.  The  blacks  no  longer 
depend  upon  imported  rations  of  rice  and  codfish,  with 
which  the  former  masters  fed  them,  but  nearly  all  have 
little  homes  surrounded  by  fields  of  ground  provisions, — 
yams,  sweet  potatoes,  bananas,  and  corn, — which,  together 


JAMAICA  215 

with  a  few  pigs  and  chickens,  furnish  an  ample  livelihood. 
The  agricultural  prosperity  of  Jamaica  is  handicapped, 
however,  by  the  fact  that  the  export  products  are  so 
largely  taxed  by  the  protective  duties  of  the  United  States, 
which  is  the  nearest  and  most  natural  market. 

The  imports  in  1895-96  were  valued  at  $13,722,500,  and 
the  exports  at  $8,900,000.  Great  Britain  supplies  about  48.1 
per  cent,  of  the  imports ;  Canada  and  other  British  posses- 
sions, 7.5  per  cent. ;  the  United  States,  41.8  per  cent. ;  and 
other  countries,  2.6  per  cent.  Of  the  exports  the  United 
Kingdom  consumes  27.6  per  cent.,  and  the  United  States 
57  per  cent.  It  will  thus  be  noticed  that  the  trade  with 
the  United  States  is  of  greater  bulk  and  importance  than 
that  with  Great  Britain;  indeed,  more,  perhaps,  than  is 
represented  by  the  figures,  for  while  the  United  States 
offers  a  better  market  for  sugar  and  takes  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  fruit,  the  colony  is  dependent  upon  this 
country  for  a  large  portion  of  its  staple  food-supplies. 

The  principal  items  of  island  export  are  sugar,  $928,625 ; 
rum,  $872,850 ;  and  coffee,  $1,720,000 ;  frait  exported  to  the 
United  States,  $2,421,116 ;  minor  items,  including  ginger, 
$2,500,000.  For  a  country  with  such  a  large  population 
and  so  full  of  agricultural  resources  as  Jamaica,  the  small 
export  value  seems  remarkable.  Among  the  smaller  ex- 
ports were  included  tobacco,  cigars,  and  horses,  but  no 
cattle.  Sugar  is  a  decreasing  industry  on  the  island,  and 
coffee-culture  does  not  appear  to  be  extending.  Fruit 
exportation  has  made  great  strides  in  recent  years  and  is 
likely  to  grow  in  value. 

Notwithstanding  its  natural  beauty,  fertility,  and  su- 
perior governmental  organization,  Jamaica  is  suffering 
from  financial  depression.  There  are  several  causes  for 
this  condition.  The  first  of  these  is  the  fact  that  notwith- 
standing the  loyalty  of  the  people  to  the  institutions  and 
government,  which  tie  them  to  England,  their  trade  and 
commercial  interests  are  with  the  United  States,  which 
country,  through  its  tariff  laws,  renders  it  impossible  for 


216  CUBA  AND   PORTO   KICO 

the  producers  to  obtain  the  prices  which  would  prevail  if 
the  island  had  free  trade  with  this  country.  Absentee 
landlordism  is  also  a  great  curse  to  the  island.  Most  of 
the  land  titles  are  held  in  England,  and  largely  by  men 
and  families  of  fortune,  who  care  little  for  these  estates, 
since  they  have  ceased  to  return  the  immense  revenues 
formerly  attainable  under  the  plantation  system.  The 
consei'T^atism  of  the  English  people  also  stands  seriously 
in  the  way  of  Jamaican  advancement.  The  Englishman 
adheres  to  the  dress  and  customs  of  his  Northern  isle  in 
this  tropical  clime,  and  cares  little  for  the  ever-increasing 
inventions  which  make  competitive  industry  possible. 
The  last  time  I  was  in  Kingston  an  American  ice-wagon 
arrived  on  a  steamer.  The  daily  papers,  in  noting  this  in- 
novation,— the  inhabitants  having  been  before  dependent 
upon  depots  for  this  commodity,— remarked  in  a  spirit  of 
despair  that  "  thus  our  island  is  rapidly  becoming  Yan- 
keeized.'' 

Notwithstanding  the  intense  loyalty  to  the  crown  of 
every  Jamaican,  from  the  humblest  negro  to  the  highest 
official,  there  is  a  general  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  people 
in  favor  of  annexation  to  our  country.  Froude  found  in 
the  island  the  same  longing  for  admission  to  the  Ameri- 
can Union  which  he  had  left  behind  him  in  the  Lesser 
Antilles.  "  If  the  West  Indies  were  ever  to  become  pros- 
perous, it  could  only  be  when  they  were  annexed  to  the 
United  States."  In  meeting  with  this  subdued  but  inef- 
faceable sentiment  throughout  the  loyal  British  islands,  it 
occurred  to  me  that  these  people  were  indulging  in  a  vain 
hope,  at  least  for  the  present ;  for  I  have  never  heard  the 
least  expression  on  the  part  of  Americans  of  a  desire  to 
take  from  England  the  responsibility  of  controlling  her 
West  Indian  islands,  although  it  would  be  but  wisdom  to 
break  down  the  commercial  barriers  which  now  weigh  so 
heavily  upon  the  inhabitants. 

Jamaica  has  one  hundred  and  eighty-five  miles  of  excel- 
lent railways,  extending  from  Kingston  northwest  to  Mon- 


A    CEIBA    OR    SILK-COTTON    TEEE 


CACTUS    AND    CHAPAKRAL,   JAMAICA 


JAMAICA  217 

tego  Bay  and  northeast  to  Port  Antonio,  across  the  island. 
These  are  well  managed  and  comfortably  equipped.  Some 
of  the  scenery  along  the  roads  is  magnificent.  Railway 
construction  is  difficult  and  expensive.  Seventy  thousand 
acres  of  the  crown  lands  were  conveyed  to  the  West  India 
Improvement  Company  for  its  part  in  constructing  the 
railways.  There  are  also  six  hundred  and  eighty-five 
miles  of  telegraph  line,  operated  by  the  postal  system, 
with  convenient  offices  everywhere  throughout  the  island. 

The  glory  of  Jamaica,  however,  is  its  public  highways. 
There  are  thirty-six  hundred  miles  of  fine  roads, — roads 
such  as  no  country  district  in  the  United  States  pos- 
sesses,— which  are  built  to  grade,  splendidly  macadam- 
ized, well  drained  and  cared  for.  These  make  communi- 
cation easy,  and  every  portion  of  the  island  accessible. 
Not  only  are  the  roads  of  the  highest  type,  but  good 
bridges  everywhere  abound.  Some  of  these  are  so  excel- 
lent that  when  the  railways  were  constructed  they  were 
occupied  by  them  without  further  strengthening.  Strange 
to  say,  these  roads  are  more  used  by  pedestrians  than  by 
vehicles.  The  negro  inhabitants  think  nothing  of  walking 
from  twenty  to  forty  miles  a  day,  and,  when  footing  is  so 
good,  many  of  them  prefer  it  to  the  more  expensive  rail- 
way system.  The  island  is  indebted  for  this  superior 
system  of  railways  and  public  roads  to  Sir  Henry  Blake, 
for  many  years  governor,  who  has  recently  been  promoted 
to  Hong-Kong.  He  devoted  every  energy  to  perfecting 
the  means  of  transportation,  and  was  justly  proud  of  his 
department  of  public  works. 

The  island  has  a  good  system  of  coastal  and  foreign 
communication.  A  comfortable  steamer  leaves  Kingston 
eveiy  week  and  circumnavigates  the  island,  touching  at 
every  little  port,  not  only  affording  the  benefits  of  trans- 
portation to  the  inhabitants,  but  presenting  to  the  tourist 
the  opportunity  for  a  most  charming  journey.  Excellent 
lines  of  steamers  ply  between  the  island  and  the  United 
States,  Panama,  Costa  Rica,  Mexico,  Colombia,  the  Lesser 


218  CUBA   AND   PORTO   KICO 

Antilles,  and  England.  The  principal  line  is  the  English 
Royal  Mail  Company,  which  maintains  a  comfortable 
service  between  England  and  the  Caribbean  ports,  ex- 
cepting those  belonging  to  Spain,  which  are  avoided  on 
account  of  sanitation.  These  steamers  are  patronized 
largely  by  English  tourists  who  come  out  to  see  the 
colonies.  The  arrival  of  the  semimonthly  packet  from  Eng- 
land, bringing  mail,  parcels,  English  mutton,  butter,  and  a 
thousand  and  one  necessaries,  which  every  Englishman 
in  Jamaica  awaits  from  home,  is  the  most  important  event 
upon  the  island.  The  principal  service  to  the  United 
States  is  maintained  by  the  Atlas  Line  from  New  York  and 
the  Boston  Fruit  Company's  steamers  from  Boston,  New 
York,  Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

JAMAICA  {Continued) 

Cities  and  villages.  Kingston.  Spanish  Town.  Port  Antonio.  Montego 
Bay.  Rural  life.  The  people.  Excess  of  the  black  population.  Color- 
line  and  distinctions.  Dress  and  habits  of  the  blacks.  Folk-lore  of  the 
negroes.     A  peculiar  alphabet.     Dependencies  of  Jamaica. 

THE  better  classes  of  Jamaicans  do  not  dwell  in  cities, 
which  are  few  in  number  and  the  least  attractive 
features  of  the  island.  There  are  numerous  small  towns 
and  villages,  local  centers  of  trade. 

Kingston,  the  colonial  and  commercial  capital  and  only 
city  of  importance,  is  a  most  unattractive  place,  situated 
on  the  south  side,  a  little  east  of  the  middle  of  the  island, 
on  a  low,  arid  plain  surrounded  by  mountains.  It  faces  an 
extensive  harbor  inclosed  by  a  narrow  spit  of  sand,  some 
four  miles  in  length,  called  the  Palisades,  which  projects 
from  the  land  like  a  crooked  finger.  Travelers  landing  at 
Kingston  are  often  so  impressed  by  its  unpleasant  aspects 
that  they  leave  the  island  with  no  knowledge  of  the  beau- 
tiful interior,  and  afterward -decry  a  land  of  which  they 
have  really  seen  nothing. 

The  city  has  a  population  of  46,542.  It  is  a  hot  and 
unpleasant  town,  in  which  the  traveler  does  not  care  to 
linger  longer  than  necessary  for  the  transaction  of  busi- 
ness. It  has  good  and  well-lighted  streets  and  an  excellent 
water-supply  and  system  of  sewerage.    The  principal  mer- 

219 


220  CUBA  AND  POETO  RICO 

chants,  officials,  and  well-to-do  people  in  general,  reside 
in  handsome  English  lodges  and  villas  on  the  higher 
ground  in  the  suburbs.  It  has  a  good  street-railway- 
system  and  many  large  mercantile  houses  and  shops.  The 
sidewalks  are  miserable,  and  seem  to  be  constructed  with 
an  especial  object  to  prevent  walking.  There  are  generally 
brick  pathways  in  front  of  the  houses,  but  these  are  broken 
from  one  another  by  steps,  or  terminate  abruptly  without 
steps,  so  that  they  cannot  well  be  used ;  in  fact,  the  well- 
di'essed  white  man  who  ventures  to  walk  upon  the  streets 
of  Jamaica  is  looked  down  upon  as  an  inferior  being  by  the 
colored  population.  Numerous  victorias  and  importunate 
cabmen  are  everywhere  to  be  found,  although  one  some- 
times finds  it  inconvenient  to  pay  a  pound  sterling  for  an 
afternoon's  shopping  in  a  limited  district  which  elsewhere 
could  be  easily  traversed  afoot. 

The  architecture  of  Kingston  is  peculiar.  The  houses 
are  of  yellowish  brick,  the  prevalent  color  of  the  dusty 
roads,  with  high  steps  leading  to  a  jalosied^  second  story. 
As  Trollope  has  remarked,  one  is  struck  by  the  ugliness 
of  the  buildings,  especially  those  which  partake  in  any 
degree  of  a  public  character.  It  is  singular  that  any  man 
who  could  put  bricks,  stone,  and  timber  together  should 
construct  the  peculiar  forms  which  are  to  be  seen  here. 

The  public  institutions  are  many  and  excellently  con- 
ducted, including  schools,  churches,  museum,  library, 
almshouse,  asylum,  penitentiary,  colonial  offices,  etc. 
There  is  also  a  handsome  market  named  after  Queen 
Victoria.  In  the  central  part  of  the  city  is  a  park  with 
several  statues  of  local  celebrities,  including  one  to  Dr. 
Bowerbank,  a  distinguished  physician  and  sanitary  re- 
former. There  is  no  theater  in  Kingston  worthy  of  the 
name. 

The  suburbs  lying  to  the  north  of  the  city  are  delightful. 
As  one  drives  in  that  direction  up  the  sloping  plain,  which 

1  Jalosies  are  Venetian  blinds  with  large  slats,  used  in  tropical  countries 
to  screen  interiors,  without  excluding  the  air. 


COUNTRY    HOUSE,    RETREAT    PEN,    CLARENDON 


KINGSTON    STREET   SCENE 

JAMAICA 


JAMAICA  221 

rises  within  a  few  miles  to  a  thousand  feet  above  the  sea, 
he  passes  many  beautiful  English  homes,  each  surrounded 
with  its  garden,  in  which  fliaming  poinsettias,  oleanders, 
and  hibiscus-trees  are  the  most  conspicuous  objects.  A 
large  area,  known  as  the  Up-town  Camp,  is  the  military- 
garrison,  with  its  parade-gi'ounds,  race-track,  golf-links, 
and  handsome  quarters  for  the  officers  and  soldiers.  The 
troops  are  principally  of  the  West  Indian  regiment,  composed 
of  tall  blacks  arrayed  in  handsome  Zouave  uniforms,  con- 
sisting of  red  turbans,  white  jackets,  blue  trousers,  and 
white  leggings.  Their  picturesque  figures,  seen  strolling 
along  the  streets,  are  very  pleasing,  and  the  regimental 
band  furnishes  good  music.  Four  miles  north  of  the  city 
are  the  extensive  grounds  of  the  governor's  residence,  or 
King's  House.  This  consists  of  elaborate  buildings,  con- 
structed for  comfort  in  the  tropical  clime,  rather  than  with 
a  view  to  architectural  ornateness,  and  surrounded  by 
lovely  gardens.  Here  the  governor  and  his  wife  extend 
a  courteous  hospitality  to  the  residents  of  the  island  and 
the  passing  stranger.  Still  beyond  are  handsome  public 
gardens  and  the  large  Constant  Spring  Hotel,  at  the  foot 
of  the  mountain,  from  which  the  city  is  easily  reached. 

At  the  end  of  'the  spit  inclosing  the  harbor,  four  miles 
southwest  of  the  city,  is  the  naval  station  of  Port  Royal, 
the  headquarters  of  her  Majesty's  naval  forces  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  perhaps,  with  the  exception  of  St.  Lucia, 
the  most  important  British  stronghold  in  the  Caribbean 
Sea.  Old  Port  Royal,  once  the  most  flourishing  English 
city  of  the  New  World,  stood  at  the  extremity  of  the 
Palisades,  near  the  present  naval  station.  In  1693  it 
was  destroyed  by  a  terrible  earthquake,  the  city  sliding 
bodily  into  the  ocean.  The  disaster  was  one  of  the  most 
appalling  of  all  recorded  catastrophes  of  nature.  In 
entering  Kingston  harbor  the  traveler  is  told  that  beneath 
the  waters  the  spires  and  roofs  of  the  ancient  houses  can 
still  be  seen.  Kingston  came  into  prominence  as  a  com- 
mercial center  after  this  catastrophe. 


222  CUBA   AND   POETO   RICO 

Fifteen  miles  west  of  Kingston  is  the  interesting  old 
Spanish  Town  (population  five  thousand),  which  until 
late  years  was  the  political  capital  of  the  island.  Its 
original  name  was  Santiago  de  la  Vega,  and  it  was  settled 
by  Diego  Columbus  in  1525.  The  administrative  buildings 
of  the  colony,  rather  imposing  structures,  including  an 
ornate  arcade  with  a  statue  of  Admiral  Eodney,  are  situ- 
ated here,  but  are  now  unused.  The  town  has  an  air  of 
peace  and  quiet.  Although  the  seat  of  a  large  population, 
there  is  no  evidence  of  business  activity,  and  the  most 
interesting  feature  of  the  city  is  the  old  church  and  church- 
yard, where  the  inscriptions  of  the  tombs  recall  lives  and 
events  in  the  past  history  of  Jamaica.  Among  these  is 
one  which  cannot  but  touch  the  hearts  of  Americans.  It 
is  a  marble  slab  at  the  right  of  the  south  door,  near  the 
middle  of  the  churchyard,  and  bears  the  following  inscrip- 
tion: 

m 

MEMORY  OF 

GEORGE  WASHINGTON  REED, 

Master  Commandant  in  the  Navy  of  the 

United  States. 

Born  at  Philadelphia,  May  26th,  1780. 

Captured  in  the  U.  S.  Brig  of  War  Vixen, 

Under  his  command, 

By  H.  B.  M.  Frigate  Southampton; 

He  died  a  Prisoner  of  War  at  this  place, 

January  4th,  1813. 

Unwilling  to  forsake  his  companions  in  Captivity, 

He  declined  a  proffered  parole,  and  sunk  under  a 

tropical  Fever, 

THIS  STONE 

Is  inscribed  by  the  hand  of  affection 

as  a  memorial  of  his  virtues, 

and  records  the  gratitude  of  his  friends 

For  the  kind  offices  which 

in  the  season  of  sickness  and  hour  of 

Death  He  received  at  the  hands  of 

A  generous  Foe. 


JAMAICA  223 

An  excellent  hotel,  one  of  the  best  on  the  island,  is  found 
in  Spanish  Town,  where  one  may  enjoy  rest  and  enter- 
tainment in  the  quiet  English  way. 

Port  Antonio,  on  the  northeast  side,  is  the  second  com- 
mercial city  in  Jamaica.  This  is  a  queer  old  place,  which 
had  no  importance  until  within  the  past  two  decades, 
when  it  was  made  the  center  of  the  fruit-shipping  indus- 
try. It  has  two  safe  harbors,  the  western  one  capable  of 
allowing  large  vessels  to  lie  alongside  the  wharves.  It  is 
now  visited  regularly  two  or  three  times  a  week  by  fruit- 
steamers  from  Boston,  Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  and  New 
York.  Most  of  the  bananas  consumed  in  our  Northern 
markets  are  shipped  from  here.  A  line  of  railway  con- 
nects Port  Antonio  with  Kingston.  Many  beautiful  drives 
diverge  from  the  city,  one  leading  southward  across  the 
Cuna-Cuna  Pass  to  Bath,  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  island. 

On  the  northwest  coast  the  principal  town  is  Montego 
Bay,  situated  on  a  beautiful  and  picturesque  inlet,  but,  like 
most  of  the  Jamaican  towns,  a  place  of  little  interest  or 
importance,  although  the  scene  of  many  business  transac- 
tions. It  is  connected  by  rail  with  Kingston,  one  hundi*ed 
and  twenty-jBive  miles  distant. 

There  are  many  other  small  and  picturesque  towns 
along  the  north  coast,  such  as  Lucea,  Falmouth,  St.  Ann's 
Bay,  Port  Maria,  and  Buff  Bay ;  and  on  the  south  coast 
are  Port  Morant,  Morant  Bay,  Black  River,  and  Savana- 
la-Mar. 

Most  of  the  other  villages  of  Jamaica  are  merely  market- 
places where  the  gregarious  blacks  congregate  on  certain 
days  to  sell  their  yams  and  fruits  and  make  their  humble 
purchases  from  the  few  shops,  usually  kept  by  some  coal- 
black  Levi  or  leather-colored  Isaacson.  Hebrew  names 
appear  upon  all  the  signs  of  the  roadside  shops  in  Jamaica, 
and  one  cannot  avoid  a  shock  after  inquiring  for  the 
proprietor,  whom  one  naturally  expects  to  be  of  the  type 
with  which  we  are  familiar  in  Chatham  Street,  to  find  him 
a  son  of  Timbuctoo. 


224  CUBA   AND   POKTO   KICO 

The  best  view  of  Jamaican  life  is  obtained  by  driving 
through  the  country.  Comfortable  two-horse  barouches 
can  be  hired  for  a  pound  a  day  in  Kingston,  and  a  cour- 
teous negro  serves  as  guide  and  driver.  Travel  on  the 
beautiful  highways  is  a  pleasure.  The  roads  have  a 
perfect  surface;  the  gutters  are  well  trimmed;  neatly 
painted  posts  mark  each  quarter-mile;  the  grades,  care- 
fully surveyed,  are  such  that  the  lofty  heights  are  climbed 
without  serious  effort  on  the  part  of  the  horses ;  and  every 
mile  traversed  presents  some  beautiful  and  pleasing  picture 
to  the  eye.  Sometimes  these  roads  follow  the  side  of 
picturesque  streams  like  the  Bog  Walk  and  Wag  Water; 
again,  they  rise  over  the  high  central  divides,  presenting 
remarkable  panoramas  of  landscape,  sometimes  wild  and 
rugged,  again  broken  by  beautiful  pastoral  and  agricultural 
scenes.  If  one  prefers,  he  can  drive  entirely  around  the 
island  along  the  sea-shore,  everywhere  in  sight  of  the  sea, 
here  presenting  a  gi*eat  variety  of  color, — pearl-green  above 
the  growing  reef,  or  deepest  blue  where  some  oceanic  abyss 
closely  borders  the  shore, — and  always  accompanied  by  a 
beautiful  breaking  surf  dashing  against  the  rock  or  dying 
upon  beaches  of  snow-white  sand.  Miles  of  cocoa-palms 
shade  the  road,  while  on  the  land  side  one  meets  constant 
surprises  as  he  passes  around  some  headland.  Here  a 
great  sugar-plantation  borders  the  road,  with  its  quaint 
old  buildings  and  immense  overshot  water-wheels ;  around 
the  next  headland  is  a  picturesque  village  with  its  parish 
church  and  market-place;  or  the  road  for  miles  follows 
overhanging  bluffs  veiled  with  exquisite  vegetation.  Not 
the  least  charming  features  of  such  a  drive  are  the  people 
whom  one  passes.  Everywhere  the  erect  figures  of  the 
negi'O  women  can  be  seen  walking  ahead  so  rapidly  that  our 
trotting  horses  hardly  overtake  them,  each  carrying  upon 
her  head  some  burden— a  basket,  tray,  bundle,  or  vessel,  a 
prayer-book,  a  handkerchief,  or,  if  naught  else,  a  round 
stone  to  hold  down  her  hat. 

The  Jamaican  woman  thinks  nothing  of  walking  twenty 


NEGRESSES    TRANSPORTING    CHARCOAL 


LOGWOOD  COLLECTED   FOR   SHIPMENT 
JAMAICA 


\ 


"^vl 


JAMAICA  225 

miles  to  market  and  back  to  sell  a  bunch  of  plantains  or  a 
few  pounds  of  yams  valued  at  less  than  a  shilling.  When 
they  meet  they  never  fail  to  exchange  courteous  greetings. 
Occasionally  one  meets  the  planters  and  pen-keepers  of  the 
better  classes,  or  some  country  curate  arrayed  in  the  solemn 
black  of  his  English  prototype,  as  unsuitable  for  the  tropics 
as  can  be  imagined,  yet  conventionally  adhered  to. 

"  Lodging-houses,"  as  the  small  inns  are  called,  are  found 
at  convenient  distances,  and  sometimes  excellent  English 
hotels,  the  best  of  which  are  in  the  country,  remote  from 
any  village,  where  one  is  so  well  treated  that  he  feels  in- 
clined to  linger  for  many  days.  The  best  of  these  rural 
places  in  Jamaica  is  the  house  at  Montpelier.  This  is 
erected  upon  a  hill  in  the  center  of  the  Shettlewood  estate, 
of  ten  thousand  acres.  From  its  generous  verandas,  extend- 
ing completely  around  the  house,  the  most  beautiful  land- 
scapes of  forest-covered  hill  and  vale,  crossed  here  and 
there  by  white  highways,  and  broken  by  large  and  shady 
pastures  upon  which  graze  beautiful  herds  of  blooded 
Hindu  cattle,  can  be  seen  in  all  directions. 

Another  restful  spot  is  the  Moneague  hotel,  reached  by 
a  few  hours'  drive  from  Spanish  Town.  Here  the  governor 
and  his  family  and  the  better  class  of  tourists  seek  pleasant 
quiet. 

Near  the  eastern  end  are  the  warm  springs  of  Bath,  near 
which  there  is  another  good  hotel.  Mandeville,  in  the 
west,  has  also  a  high  reputation  for  the  excellence  of  its 
entertainment  and  beauty  of  its  surroundings,  and  no 
Englishman  visits  the  island  without  stopping  there. 
Kingsley,  Froude,  and  TroUope  have  exploited  its  delights 
and  restfulness.  The  charm  of  these  places  is  indescriba- 
ble. Unlike  our  bustling  American  tourist  hotels,  they 
make  no  attempt  at  elegance  of  furnishings,  and  each  guest 
is  permitted  to  enjoy  himself  as  he  pleases. 

Jamaica  is  thickly  settled,  yet  it  could  support  many 
more  people.  According  to  the  census  of  1891,  the  popu- 
lation was  639,491,  but  by  the  law  of  natural  increase  it 

16 


226  CUBA  AND  PORTO  KICO 

probably  now  amounts  to  717,016  people,  or  173  per  square 
mile.  In  area  and  density  of  population  the  island  closely 
resembles  Connecticut.  According  to  the  census  of  1891, 
the  blacks  numbered  488,624,  the  colored  121,955.  To- 
gether these  classes  number  610,579,  or  five  sixths  of  the 
total  population.  The  whites  are  next  in  proportion,  num- 
bering 14,692,  while  there  are  10,116  East  Indian  coolies. 
Besides  these  there  were  481  Chinamen,  and  3623  people 
whose  race  was  not  stated.  There  were  nearly  28,000  more 
females  than  males,  and  292,288  people,  or  one  half  the 
population,  were  illiterate — not  such  a  bad  showing  for  a 
black  man's  country  when  we  think  that  two  thirds  of  the 
white  population  of  Porto  Rico  are  equally  ignorant.  The 
population  of  Jamaica  is  increasing  very  rapidly  by  births. - 
From  1861  to  1871  the  increase  was  64,890 ;  from  1871  to 
1881,  74,680.  The  birth-rate  in  1892-93  was  37.3  per  cent. ; 
the  death-rate  20.9  per  cent. 
^  The  black  population  outnumbers  the  white  in  the  pro- 
portion of  nearly  forty  to  one,  but  the  government  control 
is  in  the  hands  of  the  whites.  No  more  refined  people 
can  anywhere  be  found  than  the  colonial  army  and  naval 
officials  who  compose  the  higher  class  of  Kingston  society, 
while  throughout  the  island  there  are  many  estimable 
planters,  pen-keepers,  and  clergymen,  who  in  this  distant 
colony  bravely  keep  up  the  customs,  traditions,  and  habits 
of  the  mother-country.  These  form  but  a  fractional  por- 
tion of  the  Jamaican  population.  The  mass  of  the  people 
are  black  or  colored,  and  there  are  few  old  families  on  the 
island  which  do  not  show  traces  of  African  blood.  During 
the  days  when  the  large  plantations  were  prosperous, 
miscegenation  prevailed  to  an  alarming  degi'ee,  and  al- 
though not  common  now,  its  effects  are  seen  on  every 
side.  Prior  to  this,  however,  the  Jews,  who  constituted 
the  mercantile  class  of  the  island,  had  mingled  freely  with 
the  black  race,  and  before  them  the  Spanish  blood  had 
made  a  contribution  of  mestizos.  As  a  result  of  this 
peculiar  combination,  there  are  many  grades  and  qualities 


JAMAICA  227 

of  colored  people  on  the  island,  the  best  of  which  is  that 
of  the  English  mixture.  So  long  ago  was  the  African 
strain  ingrafted  that  in  many  instances  its  possessors  are 
often  indistinguishable  from  the  white ;  but  there  is  always 
some  meddlesome  fellow  who  will  call  attention  to  it  even 
when  it  is  not  evident  to  the  eye.  Trollope  has  well  de- 
scribed this  habit  of  the  Jamaicans  of  pointing  out  the 
blood-taint. 

The  other  mixtures  of  Jew  and  negro,  and  Spanish  and 
negro,  and  these  two  classes  mixed  with  each  other,  do  not 
result  in  as  handsome  a  race  as  either  the  Cuban  or  French 
island  mulattos.  The  product  is  a  scrawny  race,  of  un- 
pleasant features.  Nearly  all  the  tradespeople  of  Jamaica 
are  of  this  class,  possessing  the  shrewdness  of  the  Jew,  the 
groveling  traits  of  the  slave,  and  the  servility  of  the  Lon- 
don shopkeeper ;  they  grate  upon  the  American  nerves  most 
unpleasantly.  Of  the  better  class  of  colored  people  many 
are  highly  educated  and  intelligent,  including  in  their 
ranks  professional  men  and  merchants  who  would  do 
credit  to  any  country. 

But  the  unadulterated  black— the  coal-black,  the  "  nig- 
ger "  par  excellence  of  Trollope,  Dickens,  and  Thackeray, 
an  amusing  and  interesting  type — is  in  a  vast  majority 
here.  The  Jamaican  negroes  are  siii  generis ;  nothing  like 
them,  even  of  their  own  race,  can  elsewhere  be  found— not 
even  elsewhere  in  the  West  Indies.  They  are  omnipresent. 
The  towns,  the  country  highways,  and  the  woods  ring  with 
their  laughter  and  merry  songs ;  they  fill  the  churches  and 
throng  the  highways,  especially  on  market-days,  when  the 
country  roads  are  black  with  them;  and  they  are  witty 
and  full  of  queer  stories  and  folk-lore,  some  of  which 
we  give  below.  Although  the  Englishman  will  tell  you 
that  they  are  poor  laborers,  they  do  the  menial  work  of 
the  island,  and  altogether  are  cheerful  and  respectful,  hav- 
ing at  least  a  great  regard  for  good  manners  and  appear- 
ance. Their  wants  are  few,  and  most  of  them  are  content 
with  a  small  hut  surrounded  by  a  provision-gi'ound,  where 


228  CUBA   AND   POETO   RICO 

they  can  grow  yams,  cocoanuts,  bananas,  and  sugar-cane, 
to  supply  their  meager  diet,  a  kind,  by  the  way,  entirely  too 
light  to  support  hard  labor.  An  American  contractor  who 
was  recently  engaged  in  building  the  Port  Antonio  railway 
informed  me  that  the  Jamaican  was  very  unsatisfactory  as 
a  laborer,  even  at  the  small  cost  of  a  shilling  per  day.  He 
had  imported  from  Alabama  a  few  Southern  negroes,  each 
of  whom  seemed  capable  of  doing  ten  times  as  much  labor 
as  the  Jamaican.  He  wondered  at  this  difference  in  the 
endurance  of  the  two  kinds  of  people  of  the  same  race, 
until  he  observed  that  a  Jamaican  who  secured  American 
food  while  working  about  the  commissary  tent  increased 
in  strength  each  day  until  his  possibilities  equaled  those 
of  the  American  blacks.  It  is  remarkable  how  little  food 
of  a  substantial  character  they  consume,  and  how  irregular 
they  are  in  their  houi's  of  eating.  Nevertheless,  Jamaican 
negroes  are  sought  far  and  wide  throughout  the  tropics  as 
laborers,  and  thousands  of  them  have  gone  to  work  upon  the 
Panama  Canal,  the  railways  of  Costa  Rica  and  Guatemala, 
and  the  banana-plantations  of  Honduras  and  Nicaragua. 

The  women  of  Jamaica,  however,  perform  the  hard 
labor.  They  do  the  household  work,  cultivate  the  fields, 
carry  the  hod  of  brick  and  mortar,  coal  the  ships,  load  the 
bananas,  break  stone  for  the  highways,  cultivate  the  fields, 
and  carry  the  products  to  market  upon  their  heads,  arrayed 
in  a  single  garment  of  calico,  and  without  shoes  or  hats. 
The  men  who  work  at  all  are  the  overseers,  mechanics,  and 
drivers  of  teams.  On  Sunday  the  women  array  themselves 
in  neatly  laundered  dresses,  put  on  their  shoes  and  stock- 
ings, and  in  exceptional  cases  hats  or  bonnets,  and  attend 
the  parish  churches.  They  are  honest,  polite,  and  indus- 
trious, but  have  little  regard  for  the  marriage  tie.  Forty 
per  cent,  of  the  births  are  illegitimate ;  yet  no  one  would 
wish  to  see  the  toilsome  life  of  one  of  these  women  still 
further  burdened  by  having  to  support  a  worthless  hus- 
band, who  would  have  authority  over  the  children  whom 
she  can  now  claim  as  her  own. 


JAMAICA  229 

These  people,  notwithstanding  their  imitation  of  their 
English  masters  in  dress,  habits,  and  religion,  are  still  sav- 
ages in  their  minds  and  culture,  though  not  savage  in  the 
sense  of  cruel  or  vindictive,  for  the  negro  has  traits  of  char- 
acter entirely  different  from  those  which  we  ordinarily 
attribute  to  savages,  judged  by  the  standard  of  the  tradi- 
tional American  red  man.  Notwithstanding  the  outward 
semblance  of  the  Christian  religion,  they  only  assume  its 
more  conspicuous  phases.  They  find  in  church  attendance 
a  satisfaction  of  their  gregarious  tendencies,  and  in  religious 
rites,  especially  those  of  the  evangelical  denominations, 
an  opportunity  to  sing  and  shout  and  sway  in  rhythmic 
motion,  just  as  their  ancestors  did  in  the  voodoo  cere- 
monies of  the  African  forests.  The  ethical,  moral,  and 
spiritual  teachings  of  the  earnest  preachers  pass  through 
their  simple  minds  like  water  through  a  sieve;  only  the 
ceremonial  and  emotional  phases  impress  them ;  an  empty 
bottle,— a  potent  power  of  evil, — if  set  down  at  the  door  of 
a  congregation,  would  send  it  into  paroxysms  of  fear.  On 
the  road  to  and  from  the  church,  the  rustling  of  the  wind 
through  a  ceiba-tree,  which  in  their  humble  minds  is  the 
dwelling-place  of  jumbies,^  will  offset  all  the  sermons  of  the 
day. 

Even  educated  young  women  in  the  normal  school 
recently  fainted  from  fear  at  sight  of  some  ti^embling 
mercury  which  had  been  spilled  upon  the  floor  during  an 
experiment.  Obiism  was  more  potent  than  science.  It 
is  believed  that  the  "  goat  without  horns  "  is  still  sacrificed 
by  these  people ;  and  when  a  child  is  lost  in  Kingston,  black 
hearts  pale  with  the  terrible  thought  that  the  obi- doctor 
has  appropriated  hira  for  this  purpose.  In  the  mountains 
and  valleys  they  still  meet,  led  by  some  hideous  obi-man, 
to  sacrifice  the  rumpled  cock  or  human  child,  or  sway  and 
dance  until  they  fall  in  trances.  Civilization  should,  in- 
deed, be  thankful  that  the  strong  arm  of  England  keeps 
these  savage  instincts  in  subjection,  and  that  its  more 

1  Jumby,  a  synonym  of  duppy — the  "  hamt "  (haunt)  of  our  Southern  negro. 


230  CUBA  AND   PORTO   RICO 

merciful  and  humane  methods  have  prevented  the  repeti- 
tion in  Jamaica  of  Haitian  degradation. 

In  the  mountains  of  the  interior,  the  cockpit  country  on 
the  west,  and  Portland  Parish  on  the  east,  there  dwell  still 
other  negroes,  who  have  special  privileges  and  are  partially 
free  from  English  rule.  These  are  the  maroons  {ci- 
marrones  of  the  Spaniards),  descendants  of  Africans  who 
would  not  endure  the  fetters  of  slavery,  and  soon  after 
landing  broke  away  from  bondage  to  these  inaccessible  re- 
treats. They  have  certain  vested  rights  which  the  other 
negroes  do  not  possess,  and  during  the  past  centuries  they 
were  feared  by  both  whites  and  blacks ;  but  England  has 
at  last  reduced  them  to  a  condition  where,  while  retaining 
their  liberties,  they  no  longer  plunder  the  planter.  They 
maintain  the  African  tribal  organization  and  have  their 
chiefs  and  head  men,  but,  otherwise  than  that  they  do  not 
serve  the  white  man,  no  difference  can  be  seen  between 
them  and  the  other  negroes  of  the  island.  An  American 
who  had  heard  much  of  these  wild  maroons  resolved  upon 
visiting  their  village  for  the  purpose  of  feasting  his  eyes  on 
a  real  African  prince.  After  a  tedious  journey  he  reached 
the  collection  of  huts  and  inquired  for  the  head  man.  A 
venerable  but  ordinary-looking  darky  finally  appeared, 
dressed  in  the  same  manner  and  speaking  the  same  lan- 
guage as  the  other  blacks  of  the  island.  Our  Boston  friend, 
after  enjoying  the  presence  of  royalty  to  satiety,  started  to 
leave  the  village,  when  he  was  greeted  with  the  customary 
parting :  "  Buckra,  I  t'ank  you  for  a  shilling,  sah." 

The  character  of  the  black  man  of  Jamaica  has  been 
beautifully  described  by  Trollope  in  his  book  on  "  The  West 
Indies  and  the  Spanish  Main,"  and  the  reader  who  wishes 
to  know  more  concerning  his  simple  nature  should  read 
his  description.  The  following  story  told  by  him  excel- 
lently illustrates  their  childlike  nature. 

Some  of  their  efforts  after  dignity  of  costume  are  ineffably  lu- 
dicrous. One  Sunday  evening,  far  away  in  the  country,  as  I  was 
riding  with  a  gentleman,  the  proprietor  of  the  estate  around  us,  I 


JAMAICA  231 

saw  a  young  girl  walking  home  from  church.  She  was  arrayed 
from  head  to  foot  in  virgin  white.  Her  gloves  were  on,  and  her 
parasol  was  up.  Her  hat  also  was  white,  and  so  was  the  lace,  and 
so  were  the  bugles  which  adorned  it.  She  walked  with  a  stately 
dignity  that  was  worthy  of  such  a  costume,  and  worthy  also  of 
higher  grandeur;  for  behind  her  walked  an  attendant  nymph, 
carrying  the  beauty's  prayer-book— on  her  head.  A  negro  woman 
carries  every  burden  on  her  head,  from  a  tub  of  water  weighing  a 
hundredweight  down  to  a  bottle  of  physic. 

When  we  came  up  to  her,  she  turned  toward  us  and  curtsied. 
She  curtsied,  for  she  recognized  her  "  massa " ;  but  she  curtsied 
with  great  dignity,  for  she  recognized  also  her  own  finery.  The 
girl  behind  with  the  prayer-book  made  the  ordinary  obeisance, 
crooking  her  leg  up  at  the  knee,  and  then  standing  upright  quicker 
than  thought. 

"  Who  on  earth  is  that  princess ! "  said  I. 

'^  They  are  two  sisters  who  both  work  at  my  mill,"  said  my  friend. 
"  Next  Sunday  they  will  change  places.  Polly  wiU  have  the  parasol 
and  the  hat,  and  Jenny  wUl  carry  the  prayer-book  on  her  head  be- 
hind her." 

His  story  of  how  the  barefooted  field-hand  came  into  a 
shoe-shop  to  buy  a  pair  of  pumps,  and  how  he  imperiously 
demanded  a  piece  of  carpet  such  as  dealers  ordinarily  have 
to  keep  their  customers'  stockings  clean,  is  equally  amus- 
ing. 

Not  the  least  striking  feature  of  the  Jamaican  negroes 
is  their  talkativeness.  The  buckra  man  they  treat  with 
outward  difiidence,  but  when  they  meet  they  open  a  rapid 
fire  of  badinage  with  one  another,  accompanied  by  many 
exclamations  and  loud  laughter.  The  noise  of  this  jabber- 
ing at  the  market-places— sometimes  elaborate  affairs  in 
the  towns,  and  sometimes  merely  fenced-in  inclosures  at 
the  cross-roads— can  be  heard  rising  above  all  other  sounds 
long  before  the  locality  iS  reached. 

And  what  interesting  spots  these  markets  are,  where 
dames  and  damsels  from  miles  around  have  each  brought 
a  head-load  of  produce  to  sell — yams,  potatoes,  peasant 
coffee,  sapodillas,  oranges,  sweet  potatoes,  well-browned 
cakes  of  cassava  bread,  plantains,  peppers,  and  other  prod- 


232  CUBA   AND   PORTO   RICO 

nets  of  their  toil.  They  still  barter  in  "  gills  "  and  "  quat- 
ties  "—old-time  coins,  fractions  of  farthings,  no.  longer 
made,  whose  value  indicates  the  extent  of  their  dealings. 
The  woman  who  does  a  business  of  two  shillings  a  market- 
day  feels  well  rewarded  for  her  work,  which  has  probably 
included  twenty  miles  of  walking  to  and  fro. 

But  the  best  traits  of  the  darkies  are  seen  around  their 
houses,  or  in  the  domestics  of  the  buckra's  home.  Often, 
as  one  passes  the  huts,  the  black  mother  may  be  seen  comb- 
ing out  the  wool  of  her  fatherless  child — trying,  trying, 
ever  trying  to  eliminate  those  African  kinks,  whose  tem- 
porary straightening  seems  in  her  imagination  to  lift  the 
little  life  a  step  nearer  the  ever-hoped-for  but  never-attain- 
able white  man's  caste.  And  as  she  lovingly  performs  this 
task,  she  tells  weird  stories  which  her  ancestors  brought 
from  Africa,  or  teaches  that  most  remarkable  Jamaican 
alphabet — a  rhyme  which  originated  no  one  knows  how, 
but  which  for  two  centuries  has  been  handed  down  orally 
from  mother  to  child,  and  which  every  Jamaican  can 
repeat.    It  runs  as  follows : 


A  is  for  Assinoo  ;^  see  how  him  stan' ! 

B  is  for  Buckra,^  bery  bad  man. 

C  is  for  Pussy  j  him  name  Maria. 

D  is  for  Duppy;^  him  eye  shine  hke  fire. 

E  is  for  Eel ;  him  catch  in  de  ferry. 

F  is  for  Figgler  ;^  him  play  sweet,  herj. 

G  is  for  Governor ;  him  hve  at  King's  House. 

H  is  for  Dry-Harbor,  place  poor  as  church-mouse. 

I  is  for  Miyself .     When  I  sick,  I  go  to  bed. 

J  is  for  John  Crow ;  he  have  a  peel  head. 

K  is  for  Kalaloo,^  bery  nice  when  him  boil. 

L  is  for  Lizard,  but  him  tail  'poil. 

M  is  for  Monkey ;  just  look  'pon  him  face. 

N  is  for  Nana;*  him  cap  trim  wid  lace. 

1  Ass,  donkey.  2  White  man.  3  Ghost.  *  Fiddler. 

5  A  kind  of  bird.  *  Baby  (a  corrupted  Spanish  word). 


JAMAICA  233 

0  is  for  Oliphant  ;^  him  have  a  big  mouf. 

P  is  for  Potto  -^  when  night  come  he  go  out. 

Q  is  for  Quattie  -^  I  beg  you  one,  massa,  please. 

R  is  for  Ratta ;  him  tiptoe  'pon  cheese. 

S  is  for  Snake ;  him  crawl  in  de  grass. 

T  is  for  Toad,  so  farr'ard  an'  fast. 

IT  is  for  Uncle.     Boy,  you  tell  him  howdee ! 

V  is  for  Vervine  ;*  make  very  good  tea. 

W,X,  Y.     Hi!  I  reaUy  forget. 

Z  is  for  Zebedee,  mending  his  net. 

The  men,  if  you  can  gain  their  confidence,  will  tell  you 
queer  stories  of  the  donkey  who  would  go  hunting  like  the 
tiger,  and  how  his  courage  failed ;  or  other  tales  of  African 
folk-lore  in  which  the  rabbit,  lion,  tiger,  and  elephant,  or 
other  animals  which  they  know  only  through  inherited 
tradition,  are  always  introduced.  These  are  allied  to  the 
Uncle  Remus  stories  which  Joel  Chandler  Harris  has  made 
familiar  to  American  readers,  and  which  are  told  wherever 
the  African  race  is  distributed. 

The  Jamaican  negroes  are  also  much  given  to  proverbs, 
and  they  have  one  ready  for  every  occasion.  These  prov- 
erbs are  essentially  the  same  as  those  told  by  all  West 
Indian  negroes,  and  no  doubt  represent  in  modified  form 
the  lore  of  their  ancestral  country.  Some  of  them  are 
pointed  and  amusing. 

Three  groups  of  islands  are  attached  to  Jamaica  for 
administrative  purposes,  although  not  related  to  it  in 
natural  affinities.  The  largest  of  these  are  the  Turks  and 
Caicos  Islands  of  the  Bahama  group,  situated  nearly  five 
hundred  miles  to  the  northeast.  Why  they  are  politically 
controlled  by  Jamaica,  and  not  by  the  Bahaman  govern- 
ment, which  surrounds  them  on  all  sides,  is  one  of  those 
inexplicable  problems  of  the  British  colonial  system  which 
we  cannot  explain.  They  will  be  discussed  with  the 
Bahama  group,  to  which  they  naturally  belong. 

1  Elephant  (this  word  is  from  the  old  Scotch  settlers). 

2  Owl.  *  A  fourth  of  a  farthing.  *  A  plant. 


234  CUBA  AND   POETO   RICO 

The  second  group  comprises  the  three  lonely  coral 
islands  known  as  the  Caymans,  situated  off  from  the 
track  of  commerce  in  the  Caribbean  Sea,  one  hundred  and 
eighty  miles  northwest  of  Jamaica.  They  are  about  the 
same  distance  due  west  of  the  Santiago  coast  of  Cuba,  to 
which  they  are  allied  by  natural  affinities,  rising  from  the 
submerged  ridge  projecting  westward  as  a  continuation  of 
the  Sierra  Maestra.  The  largest  of  these  islands  is  Grand 
Cayman,  seventeen  miles  in  length  and  foui'  miles  in  width. 
Its  coast  is  bold  and  rock-bound ;  the  eastern  and  most  of 
the  northern  shores  are  protected  by  coral  reefs  inclosing 
harbors  of  considerable  size  and  depth,  but  with  entrances 
so  narrow  and  intricate  that  only  small  vessels  can  enter. 
One  of  these,  the  Great  Sound,  on  the  north,  measures 
more  than  six  miles  across.  The  only  anchorage  for  large 
vessels  is  under  the  west  end. 

The  island  is  well  wooded,  and  produces  dye  woods, 
mahogany,  cedar,  and  other  timber.  Palms  grow  abun- 
dantly, and  are  used  by  the  natives  for  thatching  their 
cottages,  while  the  fiber  is  used  for  fishing-lines,  hats, 
baskets,  fans,  and  sieves.  The  products  of  the  soil  are 
similar  to  those  of  Jamaica,  as  are  its  wild  animals  and 
birds.  There  is  good  pasturage,  principally  guinea- grass ; 
and  horses,  cattle,  pigs,  and  poultry  are  raised  in  sufficient 
numbers  for  the  inhabitants.  Phosphate  deposits  of  con- 
siderable value  have  recently  been  found  and  shipped  to  the 
United  States.  Among  the  natural  curiosities  of  Grand 
Cayman  is  a  cave  at  Bodden  Town,  which  extends  some  hun- 
dreds of  yards  under  the  sea.  There  is  also  a  natural 
cistern  forty  to  forty-two  feet  deep,  containing  clear,  sweet 
spring-water. 

Grand  Cayman  was  at  one  time  the  rendezvous  of  buc- 
aneers,  and  they  erected  fortifications  mounted  by  heavy 
guns.    The  latter  lie  embedded  in  the  sand  at  Gun  Key. 

According  to  the  census  of  1891,  the  population  amounted 
to  4322,  of  whom  2418  were  females.  The  people  are  tem- 
perate, strong,  tall,  and  healthy-looking,  and  most  of  them 


JAMAICA  235 

are  white  or  colored.  From  the  woods  of  the  island  they 
build  themselves  neat  cottages  and  schooners.  They  live 
by  fishing  for  turtles  about  the  keys  and  banks,  and  by 
cultivating  cocoanuts.  There  is  very  little  monej^  in  the 
island,  but  there  is  no  actual  poverty,  most  of  the  people 
being  able  to  supply  all  their  humble  needs.  There  are  six 
hundred  and  thu-ty-three  houses,  collected  in  several  little 
hamlets,  including  a  church,  a  court-house,  public  offices, 
a  school-house,  and  a  prison.  The  climate  is  warm,  but  ex- 
ceedingly salubrious.  Long  remarked  that  "no  part  of 
the  world  is,  perhaps,  more  healthful  than  this  spot."  There 
is  no  resident  physician,  and  the  only  ailments  are  those  of 
old  age. 

Little  Cayman  is  nine  miles  long  and  about  a  mile  broad ; 
and  the  third  island,  Cayman  Brae,  is  ten  miles  long  and 
one  mile  in  width.  These  islands  lie  about  seventy  miles 
northeast  of  the  Grand  Cayman,  and  are  separated  by  a 
channel  seven  miles  wide.  Little  Cayman  has  only  thirty- 
five  people,  belonging  to  two  old  families.  The  people  lead 
a  very  lonely  life,  but  are  strong  and  healthy.  Cayman 
Brae  has  no  good  anchorage,  but  is  inhabited  by  people 
very  much  like  those  of  the  other  islands.  It  has  a  popu- 
lation of  five  hundred  and  twenty-eight. 

The  third  Jamaican  dependency  consists  of  the  Morant 
and  Pedro  Keys.  The  Morant  Keys  are  situated  about 
thirty- three  miles  southeast  of  Jamaica,  and  consist  of  three 
small  uninhabited  islands.  In  March  and  April  the  sea- 
birds  arrive  in  gi-eat  numbers  and  cover  them  with  eggs, 
which  are  collected  and  conveyed  in  schooners  to  Jamaica. 
Turtles  are  also  caught.  The  Pedro  Keys  are  forty  or  fifty 
miles  to  the  southwest  of  Jamaica,  and  consist  of  four 
islets.  There  are  a  few  temporary  huts,  and  some  cocoa- 
nut-trees  have  been  planted. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

THE  ISLAND  OF  SANTO  DOMINGO  ^ 

Difficulties  of  nomenclature.  Geographical  features  of  the  island.  Irreg- 
ularity of  outline.  Mountains  and  valleys.  The  Alps  of  the  Antilles. 
Classification  of  the  ranges.  Rivers  and  lakes.  Climate.  Geology^ 
Fauna. 

SANTO  DOMINGO,  although  second  in  size,  is  perhaps 
the  most  impoverished  and  backward  of  the  Great 
Antilles.  Its  area  is  about  two  thirds  that  of  Cuba  and 
more  than  three  times  that  of  Porto  Rico  and  Jamaica 
combined.  The  island  by  nature  is  the  geographic  center 
of  the  Great  Antilles.  Situated  midway  between  Porto 
Rico  and  Cuba  in  the  island  chain,  it  is  the  most  central 
and  highest  of  the  system,  from  which  the  others  in  either 
direction  may  be  considered  as  radiating  peninsulas.  It 
excels  them  all  in  altitude,  diversity  of  conj&guration,  pic- 

1  Both  "Haiti"  and  "Santo  Domingo"  are  used  as  general  terms  to  desig- 
nate this  island,  occupied  by  the  republics  of  "Haiti "and  "San  Domingo." 
It  is  not  necessary  to  enter  into  an  historic  discussion  concerning  this  nomen- 
clature, further  than  to  say  that  we  shall  use  the  Spanish  term  "Santo 
Domingo"  in  speaking  of  the  island  as  a  whole,  "San  Domingo"  for  the 
republic  of  that  name,  and  "  Haiti "  for  the  territory  embraced  within  the 
Haitian  republic.  It  is  a  matter  of  regret  that  the  old  name  "  Hispaniola  "  has 
become  obsolete. 

In  these  pages  I  have  also  intentionally  avoided  terming  the  inhabitants  of 
this  island  Dominicans,  even  though  the  San  Domingoans  may  in  these  later 
days  so  call  themselves.  The  only  true  Dominicans  are  the  inhabitants  of 
Dominica,  one  of  the  larger  islands  of  the  Lesser  Antilles. 

236 


THE   ISLAND   OF   SANTO   DOMINGO  237 

turesque  aspect,  and  natural  fertility.  It  is  so  continental 
in  its  topographic  aspect  that  away  from  the  coast  one 
finds  it  difficult  to  believe  that  he  is  upon  an  island. 

Santo  Domingo  presents  many  phases  of  interest  to  the 
student.  Besides  the  fact  that  it  is  the  only  island  of  the 
American  Mediterranean  which  did  not  depend  politically 
upon  some  European  power,  it  is  interesting  for  its  histori- 
cal associations.  Since  the  date  of  its  discovery  until  within 
the  past  decade,  nearly  every  year  of  its  history  has  been 
marked  by  some  tumultuous  event  or  political  revolution. 
Nowhere  on  the  face  of  the  earth,  especially  within  the  past 
century,  has  there  been  presented  such  a  rapid  panorama 
of  governmental  changes.  The  French  and  Spanish  sup- 
planted each  other,  only  to  be  diiven  from  the  island  by 
the  blacks  and  mulattos;  since  then  many  independent 
governments,  accompanied  by  revolutions  of  remarkable 
interest,  have  been  successively  set  up  amid  constant  strife 
and  tui-moil.  Yet,  on  the  whole,  there  has  been  a  progres- 
sive evolution  to  a  goal,  at  last  in  sight,  of  stability  and 
progress.  It  was  the  first  land  colonized  in  the  New  World 
by  Europeans,  the  starting-point  of  that  civilization  which 
spread  in  the  western  hemisphere,  and  is  now  spreading 
in  the  distant  Indies  of  which  Columbus  thought  this  very 
Island  a  portion.  It  is  the  locality  where  African  slavery 
was  first  introduced  into  America,  and  where,  strangely 
enough,  emancipation  was  first  proclaimed.  Over  it  has 
been  wielded  the  power  of  many  European  nations,  the 
blood  of  the  children  has  been  lavishly  poured  upon  its  soil, 
and  yet  to-day  "it  rests  upon  the  bosom  of  those  tropic 
seas,  as  beautiful,  majestic,  and  fruitful  in  all  its  natural 
gifts  as  when  Columbus  first  discovered  it,  waiting  only  the 
assistance  of  law  and  sound  government  to  take  its  proper 
place  in  civilization." 

It  has  been  said  that  its  exposed  geographic  position  dur- 
ing the  formative  days  of  American  history  has  been  in 
part  responsible  for  the  present  conditions,  brought  upon 
it  by  its  being  successively  the  battle-ground  of  the  Span- 


238  CUBA  AND  POKTO  KICO 

iards  and  Indians,  the  bucaneers,  the  English,  the  French, 
the  Haitians,  and  the  San  Domingoans  themselves. 

Taken  altogether  and  looked  at  in  its  natural  aspects,  no 
spot  on  earth  can  be  more  lovely,  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that 
probably  no  extent  of  territory  contains  within  itself,  under 
proper  auspices,  so  many  elements  of  prosperity,  worldly 
success,  and  happiness  as  this  island.  Yet,  viewed  in  the 
light  of  present  interests,  the  island  perhaps  is  the  least 
important  of  the  Antilles.  Its  geography  and  natural  his- 
tory, still  but  little  explored,  will  prove  voluminous. 

The  greatest  length  of  the  island  from  east  to  west  is  a 
little  more  than  four  hundred  miles ;  its  greatest  width  just 
west  of  the  geographic  center  is  one  hundred  and  sixty 
miles ;  and  its  periphery  is  nearly  a  thousand  miles.  Its 
area  is  about  thirty-one  thousand  square  miles— six  times 
that  of  Connecticut,  and  a  little  more  than  that  of  South 
Carolina. 

The  outline  of  the  island  is  the  most  irregular  of  all  the 
Great  Antilles,  being  noted  for  an  absence  of  long-con- 
tinued straight  stretches  of  coast-line  and  marked  by 
numerous  indentations  and  angular  headlands.  This  out- 
line resembles  that  of  a  swimming  frog,  whose  out- 
stretched head  and  body,  occupied  by  the  eastern  republic 
of  San  Domingo,  point  toward  Porto  Rico,  while  the  two 
long  trailing  peninsulas  of  the  Haitian  country,  extending 
westward  toward  Cuba  and  Jamaica,  resemble  the  out- 
stretched hind  legs.  On  the  northeast  the  peninsula  of 
Samana  reaches  out  from  the  land  like  an  extended  fore 
limb. 

Inclosed  by  the  western  peninsula  is  the  great  GuK  of 
Gonaives,  an  immense  semicircular  bay  with  a  coast-line 
of  two  hundred  miles.  Samana  Bay,  on  the  northeast,  is 
another  extensive  indentation  into  the  mainland,  while 
Barahona  Bay,  near  the  middle  of  the  south  coast,  and 
Manzanilla  Bay,  on  the  north,  are  also  conspicuous  inden- 
tations. 

Adjacent  to  the  main  island  are  a  few  large  islands,  not 


THE   ISLAND   OF   SANTO   DOMINGO  239 

bordering  coral  reefs  like  the  keys  of  Cuba,  but  so  similar 
to  the  main  island  in  their  mountainous  configuration  that 
they  are  apparently  remnants  of  it  which  have  been  sev- 
ered in  recent  geologic  time.  The  largest  of  these  is  Go- 
nave,  situated  in  the  western  gulf  of  that  name,  just  south 
of  the  northern  peninsula  of  St.  Nicolas.  North  of  the 
same  peninsula  is  the  lie  de  la  Tortue,  twenty-two  miles 
long  and  five  miles  broad,  famous  in  history  as  the  resort 
of  bucaneers  and  the  site  of  the  first  French  settlement. 
At  the  southeast  point  is  Saona,  nearly  the  size  of  La  Tor- 
tue. The  peninsulas  of  Samana,  on  the  northeast  coast, 
and  Tiburon,  on  the  southwest  coast,  were  both  islands 
until  recent  years,  the  passage  between  them  and  the  main- 
land having  been  but  lately  closed  by  nature.  Altavela, 
lying  just  off  the  point  of  the  middle  south  coast,  is  a 
smaller  islet,  with  the  marked  configuration  of  the  mainland. 

The  coast  of  Santo  Domingo  is  fringed  in  many  places 
with  reefs,  not  so  numerous  or  extensive  as  those  of  Cuba. 
These  are  developed  inside  the  bays,  and  Samana  Bay  is 
more  than  half  filled  by  them.  Manzanilla  Bay  is  simi- 
larly obstructed.  The  western  gulf  is  also  fringed  by  many 
coral  reefs,  and  Gonave  Island  is  connected  on  both  sides 
with  the  shore  by  reefs  broken  by  a  few  open  passages. 
The  south  coast  of  the  Tiburon  peninsula  is  bordered  by 
a  labyi'inth  of  coral  reefs,  which  also  occur  at  the  eastern 
extremity  of  Santo  Domingo.  In  general,  the  coast  is 
rugged  and  mountainous  to  the  edge  of  the  sea,  with  here 
and  there  a  few  benches  of  elevated  reef  rock  or  high  ter- 
races leading  to  the  lofty  uplands. 

Approached  from  the  sea,  the  island  has  the  aspect  of  a 
huge  mass  of  mountains  rising  precipitously  from  the 
water,  extending  in  all  directions  and  jumbled  up  in  hope- 
less confusion.  These  appear  to  come  down  to  the  water's 
brink  and  to  be  covered  with  shrubbery  and  trees  of  a  not 
particularly  inviting  aspect,  and  one  wonders  where  the 
people  live,  or  where  valuable  crops  can  be  grown.  From 
whatever  direction  the  mariner  approaches  the  island, 


240  CUBA   AND   PORTO   RICO 

these  mountains  are  ever  visible ;  in  fact,  the  Indian  name 
of  the  island  (Haiti)  signifies  "  mountains." 

It  has  been  my  observation  that  the  political  disorgan- 
ization of  tropical  countries  is  proportionate  to  their 
nigosity.  If  there  is  one  country  better  adapted,  topo- 
gi'aphically,  for  political  disunity  and  revolution  than 
another,  by  being  divided  by  inaccessible  mountain  bar- 
riers into  small  habitable  areas,  that  country,  excepting 
Colombia,  is  Santo  Domingo.  The  horizontal  area  en- 
circled by  its  waters  is  trebled  by  the  verticality  of  the 
mountains,  and  whoever  contemplates  its  political  recla- 
mation must  consider  these  wild  mountains,  fit  only  for 
the  habitation  of  wild  men. 

It  would  be  as  great  an  undertaking  to  describe  the 
mountains  of  Santo  Domingo  as  to  describe  the  Alps.  In 
a  previous  chapter  a  few  words  have  been  said  concerning 
their  relation  to  the  Grreat  Antillean  uplift,  of  which  they 
are  the  center  and  culmination.  It  is  impossible  to  con- 
vey to  the  reader  more  than  a  passing  idea  of  these  ranges 
and  summits,  with  their  hundreds  of  bewildering  names. 
They  occupy  fully  four  fifths  of  the  island,  and  render 
much  of  it  inaccessible.  In  general,  the  aspect  of  the 
whole  island  is  like  the  mountainous  eastern  ends  of  Ja- 
maica and  Cuba. 

The  mountains  consist  of  lofty  forest-covered  peaks  and 
ridges,  like  the  Blue  Mountains  of  Jamaica  and  the  Sierra 
Maestra  of  Cuba,  between  which  lie  extensive  fertile  val- 
leys, threaded  by  streams,  all  of  which — mountains,  val- 
leys, and  streams — have  a  prevalent  trend  of  west-north- 
west and  south-southeast.  These  rugged  mountain  ranges 
may  be  compared  to  a  series  of  gigantic  ridges  and  furrows, 
so  disconnected  and  irregularly  arranged  that  if  a  slight  in- 
vasion of  the  sea  should  take  place  through  subsidence,  the 
whole  would  resolve  itself  into  four  distinct  islands,  dis- 
posed from  east  to  west  in  an  irregular  but  subparaUel 
arrangement. 

The  northern  fragment,  the  Monte  Cristi  range,  would 


SANTO   CERRO   CHURCH    AND    NISPERO    OE    COLON,    OR    TREE   OF    COLUMBUS,    BENEATH    WHICH    MASS   WAS 
CELEBRATED   AFTER    THE    GREAT   VICTORY   OVER    THE    INDIANS    OF   LA   VEGA 


A   STREET   SHOWING   CATHEDRAL 


SANTO   DOMINGO 


THE  ISLAND   OF   SANTO  DOMINGO  241 

be  found  along  the  eastern  half  of  the  north  coast  from 
Manzanilla  Bay,  where  the  boundary  of  the  4mi  republics 
meets  the  sea,  eastward  to  the  Samana  peru^^tila.  This 
is  separated  from  the  remaining  portion  of  th5  island  by  a 
great  plain  stretching  from  Samana  Bay  to  Manzanilla 
Bay,  threaded  by  two  long  rivers,  the  Yaqui  del  Norte  and 
the  Yuna.  South  of  this  the  main  larger  orographic  sec- 
tion, the  Sierra  Cibao,  is  formed  by  a  zone  of  lofty  moun- 
tain lands  which  runs  diagonally  the  entire  length  of  the 
island  from  the  eastern  cape,  Engano  Point,  to  Cape  St. 
Nicolas,  on  the  Windward  Passage.  The  third  and  shorter 
section,  which  is  a  western  ramification  of  the  above,  off- 
shooting  near  the  center  of  the  range,  is  limited  by  the 
river  Artibonite  on  the  north,  the  San  Juan  on  the  east, 
and  on  the  south  by  a  valley  occupied  by  a  chain  of  lakes. 
The  fourth  and  last  section  is  formed  by  the  tall  mountains 
of  the  southwestern  peninsula.  The  central  of  these  sys- 
tems, the  Cibao  (Eocky)  Mountains,  constitute  the  mother 
range  of  the  whole  Antillean  uplift,  and  extend  through  the 
island  for  a  distance  of  four  hundred  miles.  At  its  eastern 
end  this  range  is  low  and  narrow,  rarely  acquiring  a  height 
of  more  than  a  thousand  feet ;  but  going  westward  near  the 
center  of  the  island,  it  increases  in  area  and  altitude,  rising 
until  some  of  its  numerous  peaks  are  from  eight  to  nine 
thousand  feet  high — great  projecting  summits,  standing 
above  a  labyrinth  of  secondary  crests  extending  in  every 
direction  from  the  axial  line  as  superb  monuments  of  ero- 
sion which  have  survived  the  general  lowering  of  the  land 
through  the  geologic  ages. 

The  highest  peaks  are  not  necessarily  along  the  main 
crest,  the  loftiest,  known  as  Mount  Tina,  10,300  feet  in 
height,  being  situated  to  the  south  of  the  axial  line, 
northwest  of  the  city  of  San  Domingo.  The  highest  emi- 
nence of  the  main  ridge  is  Pico  del  Yaqui,  so  called  because 
it  is  constantly  enveloped  in  silvery  clouds.  This  rises  to 
9700  feet,  while  near  by  are  many  mountains  8000  feet  or 
more  in  altitude.    Still  farther  west,  toward  the  Windward 

16 


242  CUBA  AND   POETO  BICO 

Passage,  are  hundreds  of  these  summits,  continuing  out  to 
the  very  end  of  the  Gonave  peninsula.  On  the  boundary 
between  the-  two  republics  are  at  least  eight  high  peaks, 
forming  a  rough,  wild  country,  inhabited  by  la  valliere,  or 
wild  maroons  of  Haiti. 

Westward  in  Haiti  is  the  mountain  on  which  the  des- 
potic negro  king  Christophe  erected  the  marvelous  for- 
tress of  La  Ferriere,  at  an  altitude  of  2560  feet.  This 
mountain  is  the  Bonnet-a-la-Eveque,  the  "  Bishop's  Cap.'^ 
Still  westward  these  mountains  continue  out  to  the  very 
end  of  the  rugged  St.  Nicolas  peninsula,  near  which  is  the 
Morne  d'Or  (3962  feet),  which  has  been  alleged,  without 
reason,  to  be  an  extinct  volcano ;  while  in  the  vicinity  are 
many  other  interesting  mountains  belonging  to  the  same 
range.  The  eastern  part  of  this  central  range  has  a  thou- 
sand names  for  its  many  spurs  and  lateral  ranges.  From 
the  Pico  del  Yaqui,  which,  although  not  the  highest  moun- 
tain of  the  island,  is  nevertheless  the  center  of  its  orographic 
system,  two  great  rivers  bearing  its  name  flow  to  the  north 
and  south  coasts.  Several  secondary  ranges  here  branch 
off  to  the  north.  On  the  south  the  mountains  pass  gradu- 
ally into  rolling  hills,  between  which  are  many  small  val- 
leys supporting  a  poor  population. 

The  mountains  of  the  Cibao  range  in  general  are  high 
and  closely  crowded  summits,  rising  from  sinuously  curv- 
ing crest-lines,  consisting  of  old  igneous  rocks  protruding 
through  the  disturbed  sedimentary  strata,  and  constituting 
an  irregularly  shaped  mass,  often  traversing  the  main 
axis  in  the  central  portion  of  the  range,  and  extending 
with  it  through  the  western  part  into  the  Haitian  re- 
public. 

The  base  of  the  mountain  of  Dondon  is  granite,  on  which 
rest  limestones  and  sandstones,  conglomerates,  and,  finally, 
a  sheet  of  the  universal  white  limestone  of  the  Antilles. 
These  rocks  are  intensely  folded  and  plicated.  In  the 
central  portion  of  these  mountains  are  vast  rocky  canons, 
penetrated  only  by  hunters  of  the  wild  hog.    One  of  these 


THE  ISLAND   OF   SANTO  DOMINGO  243 

peaks,  that  of  San  Jose  de  los  Mates,  is  from  five  to  six 
thousand  feet  high,  cut  from  the  naked  rocks,  which  in  the 
adjacent  mountains  reach  an  altitude  of  seven  thousand  feet. 

Elsewhere  in  places  the  mountains  are  clad  in  forests 
and  other  verdure.  Up  to  foui*  thousand  feet  pines  are 
found ;  farther  up,  as  the  precipitation  increases,  are  beau- 
tiful leafy  woods ;  while  on  the  summits  are  dense  thickets 
of  ferns.  Vines  and  bushes  render  these  forests  impass- 
able, while  the  traveler  has  to  slash  his  way  through 
thickets  of  ferns  often  so  dense  that  he  must  crawl  on 
hands  and  knees  through  a  tunnel  cut  by  himself,  and 
blinded  by  spores  at  every  step.  East  of  Jimonea  the 
floral  character  of  the  mountains  suddenly  changes;  the 
pine  disappears  completely,  and  spruce  appears  in  its 
place. 

Across  the  ranges  of  the  central  system,  which  divide 
the  republic  of  San  Domingo  into  a  northern  and  southern 
district,  there  are  few  passes.  The  most  important  is  that 
known  as  the  Widow's  Saddle,  some  five  thousand  feet  in 
height.  Across  this  the  road  rises  laboriously  through 
deep  ra\ines  in  a  thousand  windings  to  the  Saddle,  where 
the  beautiful  spectacle  makes  amends  for  the  difficulties 
of  the  ascent.    Here,  as  described  by  Moreau : 

The  enchanted  eye  is  arrested  at  a  thousand  points,  where  the 
beauty  of  one  glimpse  seems  to  disappear  beside  a  still  more 
beautiful  view,  each  pleasant,  picturesque,  and  majestic  in  its  out- 
look. Here  the  shining  surface  of  the  sea  at  a  great  distance 
peeps  out  at  intervals,  contrasting  with  the  azure  tone  of  the 
distant  land,  which  in  its  turn  delights  the  eye  by  the  contrast 
with  the  green  of  the  nearer  points.  Rivers  also  mingle  the  charm 
of  their  tortuous  ways  with  this  enchanting  picture,  while  the 
dark-browed  front  of  the  near-by  chains  rises  to  the  sublime. 
The  traveler,  as  it  were,  is  beside  himself ;  it  is  only  with  grief 
that  he  tears  himself  away  from  this  place  to  commence  the  oppo- 
site descent,  constantly  turning  his  face  in  order  to  continue  as 
long  as  possible  the  deUcious  gratification  of  the  senses  which  the 
scenic  beauty  affords. 


244  CUBA  AND  PORTO   RICO 

Another  pass,  the  Sillon  de  la  Viuda,  the  main  gate  of 
passage  between  the  north  and  south  sides  of  San  Do- 
mingo, is  reached  by  difficult  paths  through  deep  abysses. 
A  second  but  rarely  frequented  pass  between  the  same 
regions  runs  for  miles  along  the  crest  of  a  narrow  range, 
through  woods,  mud,  and  slime,  to  the  grassy  slopes  of  the 
Savana  de  la  Puerta.  Continuous  and  abundant  rainfall 
at  certain  seasons  transforms  the  roads  into  deep  mud. 
Other  passes  are  hardly  used,  and  are  scarcely  more  than 
paths  which  climb  over  the  central  range. 

In  Haiti  similar  passes  connect  the  various  portions  of 
the  island.  The  northern  part  of  the  republic  has  overland 
communication  with  the  south  by  a  post-road  running 
through  the  capes  of  the  Plaisance  and  Limbe,  five  thou- 
sand feet  high,  including,  on  the  Gonave  side,  the  irksome 
and  laborious  climb  known  as  Les  Escaliers,  a  steep  paved 
road  built  like  a  stairway  by  the  black  colonel  Dui'ocher. 

The  next  mountain  range  of  importance  is  that  which 
constitutes  the  long  and  narrow  chain  running  through 
the  southern  or  Tiburon  peninsula  of  Haiti,  which  bears 
several  names.  This  elongated  sierra,  lying  chiefly  in 
Haiti,  borders  the  western  half  of  the  south  coast,  and  is 
separated  from  the  main  body  of  the  island  by  a  long 
chain  of  lakes  extending  from  the  interior  indentation  of 
the  great  Grulf  of  Gonaives,  at  Port-au-Prince,  eastward  to 
Barahona  Bay.  The  mountain  groups  comprising  this 
chain,  which  are  practically  continuous  with  one  another, 
beginning  on  the  east,  are  the  Bandruco  and  the  Mandel  de 
los  Negros  Maron  in  San  Domingo,  succeeded  in  Haiti  by 
the  long  chain  known  as  the  La  Selle  and  De  la  Hotte 
Mountains.  This  range,  as  a  whole,  contains  some  of  the 
highest  eminences  found  in  the  republic  of  Haiti,  and  has 
near  its  ends  two  culminating  points  known  ^s  Mornes, 
2880  feet  high,  while  the  average  height  of  the  crest  is 
nearly  five  thousand  feet,  rising  directly  above  the  sea. 
The  Mornes  de  la  Hotte,  at  the  western  end,  received 
their  name  from  their  resemblance  to  an  inverted  ham- 


THE  ISLAND   OF   SANTO   DOMINGO  245 

per.  The  summits  of  these  ranges  have  not  been  ascended 
or  measured,  and  a  thousand  fables  are  told  by  the  super- 
stitious natives  dwelling  on  their  slopes  of  the  viens-viens, 
or  wild  negroes ;  of  a  mysterious  lake  whose  waters  con- 
stantly change  color,  and  of  pillars  of  rock  which  make 
resonant  noises.  Several  difficult  passes  lead  across  these 
ranges  from  Jacmel,  the  principal  southern  seaport  of 
Haiti,  to  Port-au-Prince. 

The  Monte  Cristi  chain,  which  follows  the  northern  coast, 
is  so  called  from  the  town  in  whose  immediate  vicinity  its 
last  rocks  dip  into  the  sea,  and  is  separated  from  the  rest 
of  the  island  by  the  Vega  Real.  The  gi-eatest  elevation, 
Loma  Diego  Campo,  3855  feet  in  altitude,  lies  near  the 
center  of  the  range.  The  summits  broaden  and  flatten 
perceptibly  to  the  eastward.  The  western  part  of  the 
sierra  is  dry  and  bari'en,  and  from  Isabella  onward  it  is 
marked  by  dry  yellow  hills  covered  by  thickets  of  cactus 
and  bramble.  Owing  to  their  slight  altitude  they  receive 
but  little  rainfall. 

Besides  the  systematic  ranges  above  mentioned  there 
are  many  solitary  mountains  upon  the  island,  rising  from 
the  plains  or  bordering  islets.  Among  these  independent 
features  is  the  Morne  du  Cap,  just  west  of  Cape  Haitien. 
A  few  miles  from  the  ruins  of  the  old  city  of  La  Vega, 
the  Cerro  Santo  rises  787  feet  from  the  midst  of  a  plain. 
Columbus  climbed  this  height  with  his  companions  on  his 
first  visit  to  the  island,  in  1493.  The  view  from  the  sum- 
mit was  so  beautiful  that  he  planted  a  cross  and  called 
the  plain  the  Vega  Real  ("  Royal  Plain  "). 

At  Hatillo  Maimon  is  a  hill  of  magnetic  iron,  described 
by  Schomburgk  and  Gabb.  It  is  100  feet  high,  100  feet 
wide,  300  to  400  feet  broad.  The  side  toward  the  river 
is  massive  limestone,  while  the  southern  half  is  a  mass  of 
compact  magnetic  iron  ore,  sixty-seven  to  sixty-eight  per 
cent,  of  native  iron. 

Briefly  recapitulating  the  topography  of  the  island,  we 
find  three  main  ranges,  almost  all  of  which  run  parallel  to 


246  CUBA  AND   PORTO   RICO 

the  island  axis,  or  in  a  direction  west-northwest :  first,  the 
great  central  Cibao  range,  with  its  two  side  branches, 
the  Tina  Mountains  and  the  Montagnes  Noires  Cahos; 
second,  the  southern  cordillera,  with  its  two  culminations 
and  outlying  Canal  Mountains ;  and,  third,  the  Sierra  de 
Monte  Cristi,  with  the  Puerta  Plata  group  in  the  fore- 
ground, including  the  small  ridge  of  the  Samana  peninsula. 
At  the  same  time  there  are  some  less  important  isolated 
elevations,  such  as  the  Morne  du  Cap,  the  Sambo  Hills, 
the  Penones,  and  Mount  Busu.  In  addition  to  the  sharp 
slopes  of  the  thousands  of  V-shaped  gorges  cut  by  the 
numerous  streams,  the  main  ranges  are  separated  from 
one  another,  especially  in  the  republic  of  San  Domingo, 
by  extensive  central  valley  plains,  which  were  at  one  time 
either  arms  of  the  ocean  or  lakes,  and,  like  the  mountains, 
they  trend  northward  and  westerly.  The  largest  of  these, 
lying  between  the  north-coast  sierra  of  Monte  Cristi  and 
the  great  central  cordillera  of  Cibao,  extends  one  hundred 
miles  from  the  sea  at  the  Haitian  boundary  into  the  Grulf 
of  Samana,  which  is  its  prolongation.  Two  rivers,  the 
Yaqui  and  Yuna,  enter  the  middle  portion  of  this  valley 
from  the  central  mountains,  and,  diverging,  thread  it  in 
opposite  directions  to  the  sea.  The  western  portion, 
watered  by  the  first-mentioned  river,  is  known  as  the 
valley  of  Santiago  or  of  the  Yaqui,  while  the  eastern  part 
is  the  Yega  Real.  In  no  places  is  this  valley  over  fifteen 
miles  in  width,  and  at  each  end  it  is  marked  by  salt- 
marshes  and  lagoons.  The  two  divisions  present  marked 
dissimilarities  in  vegetation,  due  to  differences  of  rainfall 
and  moisture.  The  windward  division,  covered  by 
beautiful  deciduous  plants,  is  a  most  fertile,  beautiful,  and 
well- watered  valley.  The  Santiago  plain  is  an  arid  region 
covered  by  chaparral,  where,  as  in  Arizona,  several  species 
of  thorny  acacias  dispute  the  ground  with  cactus,  here 
more  diversified  than  anywhere  in  the  West  Indies,  and 
including  arborescent  opuntias,  like  the  nopal  of  Mexico ; 
tall,  columnar  cereus,  like  the  pitahaya  of  California ;  and 


THE  ISLAND   OF   SANTO   DOMINGO  247 

melon-  and  cushion-shaped  cacti  of  several  kinds— in  all 
nearly  twenty  species.  The  land  is  now  used  only  for 
grazing,  but  is  well  situated  for  irrigation.  In  fact,  the 
region  is  a  miniature  duplication  of  the  American  deserts. 

South  of  the  Cibao  range,  between  its  slopes  and  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  in  the  eastern  third  of  the  island,  is  an- 
other extensive  plain,  ninety-five  miles  in  length,  known 
as  the  plain  of  Seylo,  which  slopes  from  the  central 
mountains  to  the  sea  and  terminates  west  of  San  Domingo 
city,  in  which  the  principal  population  of  the  southern 
half  of  the  republic  of  San  Domingo  is  located.  This  is 
a  more  broken  region  than  the  great  plain  of  the  north, 
and  is  in  part  open  prairie  and  in  part  forest.  A  belt  of 
forest  averaging  twelve  miles  in  width  borders  the  ter- 
raced Caribbean  coast.  The  line  of  juncture  between  the 
coast  forest  and  the  interior  prairies  is  marked  by  beauti- 
ful park-like  landscapes,  carpeted  with  green  grass  and 
dotted  by  clumps  of  trees.  The  soil  of  this  plain  is  grav- 
elly to  the  westward,  but  changes  into  loams  and  clays 
toward  the  east. 

West  of  San  Domingo  city,  between  it  and  Azua,  for  a 
distance  of  fifty  miles,  a  broad  belt  of  mountainous  coun- 
try projecting  southward  from  the  central  range  comes 
down  to  the  shore  of  the  sea.  Then  comes  the  Bay  of 
Ocoa,  surrounded  by  a  plain  from  which  two  narrow  val- 
leys, or  rather  chains  of  valleys,  lead  north-of-west  toward 
the  Windward  Passage.  Around  Azua  the  plain  is  another 
desert  in  the  oasis,  if  we  may  be  permitted  to  transpose  the 
familiar  figure.  The  whole  neighborhood  is  barren,  dry, 
and  thorny.  Yet  three  miles  to  the  southwest  the  whole 
character  of  the  country  changes  so  completely  that  one 
finds  there  the  best  sugar-estates  on  the  island. 

Northwest  of  Azua,  leading  toward  the  south  side  of  the 
St.  Nicolas  peninsula,  and  surrounded  by  high  mountains, 
is  the  Vale  of  Constanzia.  This  somewhat  inaccessible 
valley  is  described  in  glowing  terms  by  those  who  have 
seen  it.    Its  soil  is  exceedingly  fertile  and  is  covered  by  a 


248  CUBA  AND   POETO   BICO 

deep  mantle  of  guinea-grass.  During  the  "old  Spanish 
time"  this  is  said  to  have  been  the  richest  region  of  the 
island,  but  it  was  depopulated  by  the  turmoils  of  warfare, 
owing  to  its  proximity  to  the  boundary  of  the  warring  re- 
publics, although  the  San  Domingoans  are  now  reoccupy- 
ing  it. 

Still  south  of  the  Constanzia,  separated  by  high  moun- 
tains, is  the  great  depression  of  the  Laguna  EnriquiUo, 
reaching  from  the  Azua  plain,  on  the  Caribbean,  to  Port- 
au-Prince,  on  the  Windward  Passage,  and  almost  severing 
the  Tiburon  peninsula  of  Haiti,  with  its  wild  inhabitants, 
from  the  remainder  of  the  island.  This  valley  was  an 
oceanic  strait  in  very  recent  geologic  times. 

The  island,  like  all  the  Antilles,  is  abundantly  watered 
by  streams  flowing  from  the  perpetual  region  of  rainfall  of 
the  high  mountains.  Every  district  has  its  rivulet  or  river, 
while  four  great  mother  streams  rise  in  the  geographic  cen- 
ter of  the  island,  around  the  slopes  of  the  Pico  del  Yaqui, 
and  find  their  way  to  the  sea  in  different  directions.  Two 
of  these,  the  Manai  (or  Yuna)  and  the  Yaqui  of  the  north, 
flow  northward  to  the  great  plain,  upon  reaching  which 
they  turn  east  and  west  respectively  in  opposite  directions, 
one  into  the  Bay  of  Samana,  on  the  east,  and  the  other  into 
Manzanilla  Bay.  They  are  navigable  by  canoes  for  long  dis- 
tances. The  Artibonite  flows  from  this  summit  westward 
through  Haiti,  of  which  it  is  the  chief  stream,  into  the  Gulf 
of  Grona'ives.  To  the  southward  runs  the  San  Juan,  empty- 
ing into  Barahona  Bay,  San  Domingo.  Smaller  rivers  and 
their  tributaries  drain  every  portion  of  the  island.  The 
most  copious  of  these  is  the  Ozama,  flowing  into  the  Carib- 
bean at  the  city  of  San  Domingo.  One  of  its  tributaries, 
the  Brujuelas,  after  flowing  on  the  surface  to  within  twelve 
miles  of  the  coast,  plunges  into  a  chasm. 

The  only  lakes  are  those  of  the  east-and-west  depression, 
which  separates  the  southern  peninsula  from  the  main 
portion  of  the  island.  The  largest  of  these  stands  at  a 
height  of  about  three  hundred  feet ;  owing  to  its  saltness, 


THE  ISLAND  OF  SANTO  DOMINGO  249 

the  Haitian  negi'oes  call  it  the  fitang  Sale.  This  basin, 
formerly  an  oceanic  inlet,  is  said  to  be  still  inhabited  by 
sharks,  porpoises,  and  even  crocodiles.  It  has  an  area  of 
one  hundred  and  seventy  square  miles  and  is  very  deep. 
After  heavy  rains  it  occasionally  forms  a  continuous  sheet 
of  water  with  another  lake,  called  Funda,  which  extends 
northwest  toward  Port-au-Prince  Bay.  The  united  lake 
has  a  total  length  of  sixty  miles,  with  an  average  breadth 
of  nine  or  ten,  and  is  larger  than  the  Lake  of  Geneva. 
Farther  south  in  the  mountains  of  Tiburon  peninsula  is  the 
fresh- water  lake,  Icotea  de  Limon. 

In  general,  the  geology  of  the  island  is  similar  to  that 
of  Cuba  and  Jamaica,  more  especially  the  eastern  ends, 
being  composed  of  foui*  principal  formations :  the  older 
mountain  rocks,  of  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  age,  made  up 
of  igneous  rocks  and  clays,  mantled  by  gravels  and  crystal- 
hne  limestone ;  the  white  limestones  of  Tertiary  age ;  recent 
alluvial  formations;  and  the  coast  limestone  of  elevated 
reef  rock.  No  recent  volcanic  rocks  are  known.  The 
geology  and  minerals  of  Santo  Domingo  have  been  the 
subject  of  special  reports  by  many  wi'iters,  including  three 
American  geologists,  Messrs.  Blake,  Grabb,  and  Marvin. 

Coal  is  reported  in  considerable  quantities  in  the  vicinity 
of  Samana  Bay  and  elsewhere,  but  on  examination  it  has 
proved  to  be  lignite,  of  little  value  for  fuel.  Silver,  plati- 
num, manganese,  tin,  antimony,  marble,  opal,  and  chal- 
cedony are  among  the  exploited  minerals. 

The  climate  of  Santo  Domingo  is  more  diversified  than 
that  of  any  of  the  other  Antilles,  presenting  wide  extremes 
of  moisture,  aridity,  and  temperature.  The  heat  at  Port-au- 
Prince,  at  the  western  end  of  the  island,  owing  to  its  shel- 
tered situation,  is  probably  greater  than  at  any  other 
seaport  in  the  West  Indies,  reaching  94°  to  96°  every  day 
between  April  and  October.  The  nights  are  on  an  average 
10°  to  20°  cooler  than  the  days,  so  that  they  seem  cool 
and  refreshing  in  comparison.  This  is  in  the  so-called 
rainy  season,  the  rains  falling,  as  a  rule,  late  in  the  after- 


250  CUBA   AND    POETO   EICO 

noon  or  evenings.  During  the  rest  of  the  year,  which 
covers  the  dry  season  from  October  to  April,  the  tempera- 
ture is  on  an  average  about  10°  lower. 

On  the  less  sheltered  coasts,  even  at  sea-level,  it  is  much 
cooler ;  and  as  one  ascends  the  mountains  of  the  interior, 
the  intense  heat  of  the  seaboard  becomes  moderated.  Six- 
teen hundred  feet  above  the  sea,  Americans  and  Europeans 
complain  of  the  cold  at  night,  though  even  there  the  mer- 
cury never  falls  below  45°. 

At  Port-au-Prince  the  rainy  season  covers  the  summer 
months,  but  in  the  other  parts  of  the  republic  the  rains 
run  into  and  cover  the  winter  months,  so  that  there  is 
never  a  season  when  rain  prevails  everywhere.  In  general, 
on  the  lower  slopes  of  the  Windward  side  and  in  the  de- 
pressed interior  valleys,  it  is  arid,  rain  sometimes  being 
almost  constantly  lacking ;  but  the  mountains  above  two 
thousand  feet  are  perpetually  bathed  in  rainfall,  mists,  or 
dews. 

With  the  exception  of  wild  hogs  on  the  tie  de  la 
Tortue,  some  untamed  horses  and  cattle  in  the  eastern 
part  of  Haiti,  and  wild  goats,  there  are  few  animals  on  the 
island.  Even  the  agouti,  that  peculiar  Antillean  mammal, 
is  believed  to  be  nearly  extinct,  and  the  selenodon  (or  coati) 
is  rarely  found.  There  are  no  poisonous  snakes.  Land- 
turtles,  reptiles,  and  lizards  abound,  but  they  are  harmless. 
Of  the  forty  species  of  birds  recorded  in  Haiti,  seventeen 
are  peculiar  to  it.  The  cayman  abounds  in  all  the  rivers 
of  the  Despoblado  district,  and  the  iguana  sometimes 
attains  a  length  of  five  feet. 


CHAPTEE  XXIV 

THE  REPUBLIC  OF  SAN  DOMINGO 

Political  and  social  conditions  of  the  island  as  a  whole.  The  re^blic  of 
San  Domingo.  Interesting  early  history.  The  present  government 
and  admiaistration.  Commerce  and  agriculture.  Mineral  resources. 
Population.  Predominance  of  mulattos.  Old  San  Domingo  city. 
Early  American  landmarks.     Other  points  of  interest. 

THE  political  and  social  conditions  of  Santo  Domingo 
are  no  less  interesting  than  its  natural  features. 
Nowhere  else  can  be  seen  such  peculiar  conditions,  show- 
ing as  they  do,  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  island  the 
decline  and  degeneration  of  a  people  once  the  most 
opulent,  and  at  the  other  extremity  the  successive  steps  in 
the  ascent  of  a  transplanted  inferior  race  from  savagery 
through  barbarism  to  a  degree  of  civilization.  These 
two  republics  are  respectively  San  Domingo  and  Haiti — 
the  first  a  mulatto  government,  the  second  one  of  the 
negro.  While  "the  domain  of  San  Domingo  nominally  in- 
cludes two  thirds  of  the  whole,  the  island  is  really  divisible 
into  three  distinct  parts.  The  eastern  third  contains 
nearly  all  the  San  Domingoan  population.  The  middle 
third,  known  as  the  Despoblado  ("Depopulated"),  is  an 
uninhabited  neutral  ground,  made  barren  not  only  by 
nature,  which  filled  it  with  inaccessible  mountains,  but 
by  the  warfare  between  the  two  races.  It  is  a  wild  region 
covered  with  forests  of  tropical  trees,  with  a  few  valleys 
where  the  soil  is  rich  and  the  grass  is  especially  luxuriant 
and  supports  many  wild  cattle.  The  western  third  is 
the  land  of  the  Haitians.    Between  the  two  governments 

251 


252  CUBA   AND   POETO   MCO 

there  is  a  political  antipathy  as  strong  and  forbidding  as 
their  rugged  frontier.  Port-au-Prince,  the  capital  of  the 
western  republic,  lies  due  south  of  the  city  of  New  York, 
while  San  Domingo  is  similarly  situated  relative  to  Boston. 

Perhaps  no  other  country  has  had  such  a  varied  politi- 
cal history  as  San  Domingo.  Columbus  discovered  the 
island  in  1492,  and  found  it  more  beautiful  than  Cuba. 
He  exhausted  the  language  of  panegyric  in  describing  it 
as  resembling  the  most  favored  provinces  of  Andalusia. 
Concerning  the  aborigines  he  said:  "I  swear  to  your 
Majesties,  there  is  not  in  the  world  a  better  nation  nor  a 
better  land ;  they  love  their  neighbors  as  themselves,  and 
theii*  discourse  is  ever  sweet  and  gentle,  accompanied 
with  a  smile ;  and  though  it  is  true  that  they  are  naked, 
yet  their  manners  are  decorous  and  praiseworthy." 

Columbus  first  entered  the  Haitian  Gulf  of  Gronaives, 
which  he  called  San  Mcolas,  and  because  of  the  wrecking 
of  one  of  his  caravels  made  a  temporary  settlement  on 
the  Bay  of  St.  Thomas,  now  called  Auel,  where  he  left  a 
small  party  of  his  men.  After  sailing  east  as  far  as  Sa- 
mana  he  returned  to  Spain.  On  his  second  voyage  he  re- 
turned to  the  island,  and  finding  that  his  men  had  been 
murdered  by  the  Indians,  established  a  new  colony,  called 
Isabella,  in  the  present  area  of  San  Juan.  The  spot  chosen 
was  unhealthful.  He  explored  the  interior  of  the  island, 
found  much  gold,  and  remained  long  enough  to  see  the 
colony  of  Isabella  well  started.  In  1498  he  made  his 
thii'd  visit,  and  established  himself  near  the  present  city 
of  San  Domingo. 

In  those  days  of  early  settlement,  profitable  mines  were 
opened,  advances  were  made  in  agriculture,  and  in  1495 
San  Domingo,  Isabella,  Concepcion  de  la  Vega,  Santiago, 
Puerta  Plata,  and  Bonao,  were  all  flourishing  Spanish  vil- 
lages. In  1509  Bobadilla  came  out  from  Spain  and  threw 
Columbus  and  his  brother  Bartholomew  into  prison.  The 
cell  in  which  they  were  confined  is  still  shown  in  the  old 
citadel  of  San  Domingo  city. 


THE  REPUBLIC  OF   SAN  DOSHNGO  253 

Sugar,  which  has  been  so  intimately  connected  with 
West  Indian  development  and  decay,  was  introduced  in 
1506,  and  in  a  few  years  its  cultivation  became  the  princi- 
pal occupation  of  the  colonists.  It  is  unnecessary  to 
review  the  events  of  these  earlier  years,  when  Spanish  in- 
stitutions became  firmly  implanted  on  American  soil. 
The  reduction  of  the  natives  to  slavery ;  theii*  utilization 
in  the  cane-fields  and  gold-mines,  and  final  extermi- 
nation through  hardships;  the  raiding  of  the  Bahamas 
and  adjacent  islands  for  other  slaves,  and  the  intro- 
duction of  African  slavery,  all  followed  one  another  in 
rapid  succession.  As  early  as  1522  African  slaves  on  the 
sugar-plantations  were  sufficiently  numerous  to  mutiny. 
The  Inquisition  was  introduced  in  1517. 

During  the  few  years  between  its  discovery  and  1540, 
San  Domingo  flourished.  It  witnessed  in  this  time  the 
construction  of  cities,  the  introduction  of  sugar  and  Afri- 
can slavery  into  the  New  World,  the  increase  of  vast 
herds  of  wild  cattle  upon  the  island,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  the  old  civilization  of  Spain  in  every  detail.  The 
mines  of  gold  and  silver  produced  lordly  fortunes  for 
their  owners.  But  decay  began  as  early  as  1540.  The  colo- 
nists were  seduced  away  by  the  reports  of  riches  on  the 
American  continent,  and  then  followed  a  period  of  attack 
from  the  bucaneers  of  England  and  France,  and  the  countiy 
has  had  very  little  peace  since  then,  until  within  the  past 
two  decades.  The  people  received  in  full  force  the  terrible 
incui'sions  of  the  freebooters  from  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth until  the  opening  of  the  present  century.  The 
little  island  of  Tortuga,  near  the  northwest  corner  of  Haiti, 
became  the  center  and  headquarters  from  which  they  made 
their  forays.  The  French  and  English  virtually  seized  the 
western  and  northern  parts  of  the  island  piece  by  piece, 
the  former  gradually  acquiring  possession  of  the  western 
half,  as  more  particularly  noted  in  the  description  of 
Haiti. 

Up  to  1697  the  entire  island  was  a  Spanish  colony.    In 


254  CUBA  AND  PORTO  RICO 

the  latter  year  the  western  portion,  embracing  the  present 
republic  of  Haiti,  was  ceded  to  France.  In  1785,  the  two 
hundred  and  seventy-fifth  year  of  Spanish  rule,  France 
was  given  sovereignty  over  the  whole  island,  which  was 
formally  abandoned  by  the  Spanish  government  in  1801, 
Toussaint  L'Ouverture  taking  possession  in  the  name  of 
France.  Then  followed  Haiti's  independence  of  France, 
and  the  period  of  the  black  Haitian  empire  under  Dessa- 
lines  until  1806,  when  Spain  for  the  second  time  reestab- 
lished herself  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  island,  under  the 
old  name  of  San  Domingo,  Haiti  continuing  as  a  separate 
country.  In  1821,  during  the  period  of  general  Spanish- 
American  revolution,  the  San  Domingoans  proclaimed 
their  independence  of  Spain,  and  established  for  them- 
selves a  republican  form  of  government  under  the  flag 
and  authority  of  Colombia.  At  this  time  most  of  the  old 
Spanish  element  migrated  from  the  island.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  the  two  republics  of  the  island  again  united  their 
destinies  under  a  government  known  as  the  republic  of 
Haiti,  which  continued  until  1843.  In  1844  San  Domingo 
revolted  from  Haiti  and  established  the  Republica  Do- 
minicana.  From  that  date  to  the  present  Haiti  and  San 
Domingo  have  remained  independent  of  each  other  and 
have  grown  more  and  more  distinct.  In  1861  Spain  for 
the  third  time  established  its  authority  in  San  Domingo, 
which  was  retained  for  four  years,  until  1865,  when 
its  flag  was  withdrawn.  Since  then  San  Domingo  has 
maintained  its  autonomy.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that 
within  less  than  a  century  San  Domingo  has  been  suc- 
cessively under  the  Spanish,  French,  Haitian  empire, 
Colombia,  Haitian  republic,  independent,  Spanish,  and 
independent  flags.  Moreover,  the  country  has  been  torn 
by  internal  revolutions,  and  up  to  within  recent  years 
by  constant  warfare  with  Haiti.  The  people,  realizing 
the  hopelessness  of  their  isolated  position  and  the  need 
of  a  strongly  organized  government,  in  1869  voted  to 
annex  themselves  to  the  United  States.    A  commission 


THE  REPUBLIC   OF  SAN  DOMINGO  255 

■was  appointed  by  the  United  States  government  to  in- 
vestigate the  condition  of  affairs.  It  visited  the  island  in 
1871,  and  reported  favorably,  but  the  annexation  treaty 
was  defeated  in  the  United  States  Senate.  During  the 
past  few  years,  according  to  the  consular  reports,  the 
country  has  prospered  and  become  comparatively  quiet. 
Many  immigrants,  recently  arrived  from  Cuba,  have  been 
encouraged  to  settle  on  the  island. 

The  present  republic,  founded  in  1844,  is  governed 
under  a  constitution  by  the  terms  of  which  the  legislative 
power  is  vested  in  a  congress  of  twenty-two  deputies, 
chosen  by  direct  popular  vote  with  restricted  suffrage. 
The  executive  is  vested  in  a  president,  chosen  by  an  elec- 
toral college  for  the  term  of  four  years.  The  present 
president  is  Greneral  Ulysses  Heureaux,  chosen  in  1897. 
The  ministry  is  composed  of  the  heads  of  the  departments 
of  the  interior  and  police,  finance  and  commerce,  justice 
and  public  instruction,  war  and  marine,  public  works, 
and  foreign  affairs. 

The  country  is  divided  into  ten  provinces  or  districts, 
each  administered  by  a  governor  appointed  by  the  presi- 
dent. The  various  communes,  cantons,  and  sections  are 
presided  over  by  prefects  appointed  by  the  governors. 
There  are  a  supreme  coui't  of  justice  and  eleven  district 
courts,  besides  local  alcaldes.  A  small  army  exists,  with  a 
regiment  stationed  in  each  province. 

In  1896  the  exports  were  valued  at  $2,198,817  gold ;  the 
imports  at  $1,703,595.  The  customs  duties  are  of  a  pro- 
hibitory character,  and  hence  commerce  is  not  large.  The 
principal  articles  of  export,  in  their  order  of  value,  are 
tobacco,  coffee,  cocoa,  sugar,  mahogany,  logwood,  hides, 
goatskins,  and  honey. 

The  revenue  in  1896  was  $1,545,450.  The  expenditure  is 
$1,351,250.  The  pubUc  debt  is  $13,589,750.  This  is  guar- 
anteed by  the  customs  dues  and  by  a  first  mortgage  on 
the  Central  Dominican  Railway.  The  collection  of  the 
customs  is  controlled  by  the  Santo  Domingo  Improvement 


256  CUBA  AND  PORTO  RICO 

Company  of  New  York.  The  United  States  gold  dollar  is 
the  standard  of  the  island. 

The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  official  state  religion,  other 
forms  being  permitted  under  certain  restrictions.  There 
are  fifty-four  parishes. 

The  state  educational  institutions  are  primary,  superior, 
technical,  and  normal  schools,  and  a  professional  school 
with  the  character  of  a  university.  The  last  school  census, 
taken  in  1884,  showed  that  there  were  two  hundred  and  one 
municipal  schools  for  primary  instruction  with  7708  pupils. 
Primary  instruction  is  free  and  obligatory,  being  supported 
by  the  communes  and  by  central  aid. 

About  forty  newspapers  are  published  in  the  republic. 

San  Domingo  has  the  most  fertile  sugar-lands  in  the 
West  Indies.  Large  sugar-plantations  and  -factories  are 
found  in  the  south  and  west.  The  cane  does  not  require 
frequent  replanting,  and  plantations  have  often  yielded 
fifteen  cuttings  from  the  original  roots.  The  cane  is  also 
highly  saccharine.  Its  production  has  quadrupled  in  the 
last  ten  years,  and  the  estates  and  factories  represent  a 
capitalization  of  about  twelve  million  dollars.  About  one 
million  six  hundred  thousand  dollars  is  annually  expended 
upon  them  for  labor.  This  industry  is  almost  entirely  a 
growth  of  the  last  fifteen  years.  The  export  to  the  United 
States  for  1896  amounted  to  two  million  five  hundred 
thousand  pounds — about  one  fortieth  the  normal  Cuban 
shipment. 

The  mountain  regions  of  San  Domingo,  like  those  of 
Haiti,  Cuba,  and  Jamaica,  are  especially  suited  to  the  cul- 
ture of  coffee.  The  annual  yield  is  about  a  million  and  a 
half  pounds.  The  area  of  uncultivated  lands  suitable  for 
coffee  in  this  island  probably  exceeds  that  of  all  the  rest 
of  the  Antilles. 

Cocoa  is  extensively  cultivated,  much  foreign  capital 
having  been  invested  in  it  within  recent  years,  and  the 
production  having  multiplied  fivefold  within  the  past 
decade. 


CITADEL    WHERE    COLUMBUS   WAS   IMPRISONED 


ALLEGED    COFFIN    OF    COLUMBUS 

SANTO    DOMINGO 


THE  KEPUBLIC   OF   SAN  DOMINGO  257 

Tobacco  grows  readily  everywhere,  and,  in  addition  to 
local  use,  nearly  thirteen  million  pounds  are  annually  ex- 
ported. The  principal  area  of  culture  is  on  the  northern 
side.  It  is  said  that  some  of  the  tobacco  of  the  uplands 
of  the  interior  is  quite  as  highly  flavored  and  as  good  as 
the  best  Vuelta  Abajo,  and  if  Cuban  skill  were  exercised 
in  its  culture  and  curing  it  would  be  a  most  valuable  ar- 
ticle. Yet  tobacco-culture  is  declining,  while  the  production 
of  coffee,  cocoa,  and  bananas,  as  well  as  cane-sugar,  is  on 
the  increase.  Some  attention  has  recently  been  given  to 
cattle-raising  and  dairy  produce.  A  large  part  of  the 
Vega  Eeal,  as  well  as  other  parts  of  San  Domingo,  is 
admirably  adapted  to  cultivation  by  irrigation,  which 
could  be  accomplished  at  a  very  trifling  expense  in  com- 
parison with  other  lands. 

What  we  have  said  concerning  tropical  fruits  in  the  other 
Antilles  applies  equally  to  Santo  Domingo.  They  grow 
everywhere  throughout  the  island.  American  companies 
have  appreciated  the  banana-lands,  and  large  shipments  are 
made  from  Samana  Bay.  The  luxuriance  of  the  native 
forests  is  one  of  the  most^striking  features ;  large  tracts 
of  these  in  the  interior  have  been  preserved,  owing  to 
their  inaccessibility  to  transportation.  On  these  mountain 
slopes  is  an  abundance,  not  only  of  the  choicest  cabinet- 
woods,  such  as  mahogany,  satinwoods,  and  cedar,  but  also 
a  great  variety  of  timber  especially  valuable  for  house-  and 
ship-building,  and  many  other  woods  which  enter  into 
manufactures. 

San  Domingo  has  been  a  center  of  the  mining  interests, 
but  at  present  its  mineral  resources  are  neglected.  The 
republic  in  former  years  engaged  an  American  geologist, 
Mr.  W.  M.  Gabb,  to  make  a  geological  survey  of  its  do- 
main, and  a  good  report  has  been  published  thereon.  Gold, 
which  was  worked  extensively  in  the  earlier  years  of  its 
discovery,  occurs  both  in  placers  in  the  plains  and  in 
quartz  veins  higher  up  in  the  mountains.  The  gravel  is 
rich  in  quality,  but  the  quantity  is  too  small  over  any 

17 


258  CUBA   AND   POETO   EICO 

given  area  to  make  it  of  value.  There  are  many  ancient 
pits  which  were  worked  by  the  Spaniards.  Professor  W.  M. 
Blake,  who  accompanied  the  United  States  commission  to 
the  island,  says :  "  There  is  no  doubt  that  there  is  a  gold 
region  of  considerable  extent  and  promise  in  the  island, 
but  I  did  not  see  anything  to  excite  great  enthusiasm 
regarding  the  deposits,  or  to  encourage  expectation  of  im- 
mediate large  retui*ns  for  mining  operations  there.  There 
is  enough,  however,  possibly  to  justify  the  labor  and  ex- 
pense of  carefully  prospecting  the  ground."  It  is  said  that 
many  of  the  country  people  always  have  more  or  less 
grain  gold  in  their  possession,  and  that  the  washing  of  it 
is  a  considerable  source  of  minor  income.  It  is  a  matter 
of  history  that  the  Spaniards  in  the  earlier  years  of  dis- 
covery remitted  over  four  hundred  and  sixty  thousand 
dollars  in  gold  per  annum  to  Spain,  and  that  silver- 
mines  also  were  worked.  Furthermore,  these  mines  were 
abandoned  principally  on  account  of  the  subsequent  polit- 
ical troubles.  There  is  also  evidence  that  copper,  similar 
to  that  found  in  Cuba,  occurs  in  San  Domingo.  Iron  ore 
of  excellent  quality  is  found  on  the  Maymon  Eiver,  about 
one  hundred  miles  from  Samana  Bay,  but  its  transporta- 
tion is  still  a  problem. 

The  population  of  San  Domingo  in  1888  was  six  hundred 
and  ten  thousand,  or  about  thirty-four  to  the  square  mile. 
It  was  then  and  is  still  mainly  composed  of  mixtures  of 
the  early  Spanish  inhabitants  with  the  aborigines  and 
negroes,  resulting  in  a  class  of  Spanish  mulattos.  There 
are  some  whites  of  European  descent  and  a  few  foreign 
merchants.  The  Spanish  language  prevails,  although 
French  and  English  are  commonly  spoken  in  the  cities. 
This  population  is  neither  savage  nor  vicious,  although  its 
vitality  has  been  greatly  sapped  by  the  unfortunate  politi- 
cal events  which  drove  the  superior  classes  from  the  island. 
The  better  people  seem  to  have  the  same  qualities  as  the 
Cubans  and  Porto  Ricans,  while  the  peasantry  is  a  harm- 
less though  shiftless  class,  in  no  manner  to  be  compared 


THE  BEPUBLIC  OF  SAN  DOMINGO  259 

with  the  Haitians.  Hazard  states  that  at  a  public  meet- 
ing accorded  to  the  Hon.  Andrew  D.  White,  in  which  the 
elite  of  the  people  of  Sabao  were  present,  he  was  struck 
by  the  fine  forms  and  intellectual  heads  of  those  present, 
comprising  representatives  of  the  church,  law,  medicine, 
and  the  leading  native  merchants. 

As  the  interior  is  not  well  supplied  with  highways,  ac- 
cess from  one  district  to  another  is  difficult.  A  railroad  is 
completed  between  Sanchez,  on  Samana  Bay,  and  La  Vega, 
sixty-two  miles  beyond,  and  is  being  carried  on  to  Santiago 
and  Puerta  Plata.  During  the  past  year  another  has  been 
completed  connecting  Santiago  with  the  port  of  Puerta 
Plata,  on  the  north  coast.  The  distance  covered  is  forty- 
five  miles.  Years  have  been  spent  in  the  construction  of 
this  line,  and  it  crosses  two  mountain  ranges.  Yet  another 
line  is  contemplated  between  Barahona  and  Cerro  de  Sal. 
The  total  mileage  of  railways  in  operation  is  one  hundred 
and  sixteen.  There  are  fifty-one  post-offices  and  four 
hundred  and  thirty  miles  of  telegraph. 

The  coast-line  of  San  Domingo  is  nine  hundred  and  forty 
miles  in  extent.  The  republic  has  seven  open  ports :  San 
Domingo  city  and  Azua,  on  the  south;  Samana,  on  the 
northeast ;  Puerta  Plata,  Monte  Cristi,  Macoris,  and  San- 
chez, on  the  north.  The  gr^at  Bay  of  Samana  is  to  San 
Domingo  what  Mole  St.  Nicolas  is  to  Haiti.  From  every 
point  of  view  it  is  one  of  the  most  advantageous  posses- 
sions in  the  Antilles.  It  is  thirty  miles  long,  ten  miles 
wide,  and  capable  of  accommodating  the  largest  fleets, 
and  ships  of  the  greatest  draft.  It  is  well  sheltered,  espe- 
cially against  the  north  winds,  free  from  rocks  and  shoals, 
and  restricted  by  a  narrow  entrance,  but  commercially  is 
little  utilized.    The  republic  has  two  small  steamers. 

The  country  has  but  few  cities  of  importance,  and  most 
of  these  are  in  a  state  of  decadence.  The  principal  are 
San  Domingo  and  Azua,  on  the  south  coast ;  the  interior  city 
of  Santiago,  the  metropolis  of  the  Vega  Real ;  and  Puerta 
Plata,  the  seaport  of  San  Domingo  on  the  north  coast. 


260  CUBA  AND  POETO  RICO 

San  Domingo  city  (population  twenty-five  thousand)  is 
in  an  angle  inclosed  by  the  sea  on  the  south  side  and  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Ozama  on  the  west.  It  is  perhaps  the 
most  perfect  specimen  of  the  sixteenth-century  Spanish 
city  in  America.  It  is  completely  surrounded  by  a  medie- 
val wall,  forty-five  hundred  yards  in  circumference.  As 
one  looks  from  the  sea  upon  the  ancient  walls  and  bas- 
tions and  the  Old- World  buildings,  every  feature  recalls 
the  events  of  the  first  century  of  Spanish-American  pros- 
perity. The  houses  on  straight  and  narrow  streets  are 
built  of  masonry,  with  gaily  colored  walls,  immense  doors, 
and  large  windows  like  those  of  Havana  and  San  Juan ; 
but  once  within  the  city  its  inhabitants  remove  the  spell, 
for  its  lower  population  consists  of  dirty  negroes,  and  filth 
everywhere  abounds.  The  suburbs  are  composed  of  unat- 
tractive frame  and  mud  huts  thatched  with  palm  or  straw. 
The  walls  of  the  older  houses  are  constructed  of  stone 
and  mamposteria  (a  calcareous  concrete).  As  the  traveler 
through  the  deserted  and  decayed  streets  of  San  Domingo 
looks  at  the  immense  structures,  the  solid  walls  and  ruins 
of  former  greatness,  he  finds  himself  wondering  what  has 
become  of  those  incentives  to  enterprise  which  were  the 
origin  of  such  a  city. 

The  old  churches  and  ruins  are  interesting,  but  other- 
wise there  are  few  attractive  buildings.  The  government 
palace,  while  grandiose  in  effect,  owing  to  its  balconied 
piazzas  supported  on  solid  pillars,  is  neither  handsome  nor 
striking.  The  old  cathedral  is  the  most  interesting  build- 
ing in  the  city ;  in  fact,  it  is  one  of  the  great  monuments 
of  the  western  hemisphere.  This  Gothic  edifice,  which 
faces  the  public  square,  is  built  of  solid  stone,  and  has  a 
nave  and  two  wings,  being  constructed  after  the  model  of 
a  church  in  Rome.  It  was  begun  in  1512  and  finished  in 
1540.  The  weather-stained  walls  of  the  exterior  show 
marks  of  its  great  antiquity,  while  the  interior,  with  its 
pillars,  arches,  crypts,  and  innumerable  altars,  confirms  the 
accounts  of  those  writers  who  have  given  such  glowing 


THE  REPUBLIC   OF   SAN  DOMINGO  261 

descriptions  of  its  splendor  in  ancient  days.  In  its  vaults 
are  buried  many  of  the  notable  characters  of  early  Ameri- 
can history,  including  the  family  of  Columbus,  and,  if  the 
natives  are  to  be  believed,  the  remains  of  the  immortal  ex- 
plorer himseK,  which,  according  to  them,  were  not  taken 
to  Havana.  Another  old  landmark  of  the  city  is  the  castle 
of  Columbus,  situated  upon  the  east  bank  of  the  Ozama 
River,  and  built  by  Diego  Columbus,  the  admiral's  son.  It 
is  a  solid  stone  structure  surrounded  by  a  wall  originally 
intended  to  protect  it  from  the  attacks  of  the  aborigines. 
It  is  now  in  ruin  and  decay. 

Long  years  of  adversity  and  revolution  have  impover- 
ished the  city.  No  improvements  take  place,  and  communi- 
cation with  the  other  towns  of  the  island  is  difficult.  Be- 
sides being  the  seat  of  government,  it  is  also  the  seat  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  archbishopric. 

The  place  has  a  good  reputation  for  healthfulness,  not- 
withstanding its  filth.  The  temperature  shows  a  daily 
variation  from  64°  in  the  morning  to  85°  at  midday . 

.  Santiago  de  los  Caballeros,  situated  on  the  Yaqui  River, 
in  the  northern  plain,  surrounded  by  hills  and  mountains, 
is  probably  the  most  important  city  of  the  republic.  This 
also  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  places  in  the  New  World. 
It  was  subjected  to  attacks  from  the  early  French  buca- 
neers,  burned  by  fires,  shaken  by  earthquakes,  and  almost 
destroyed  by  the  later  revolutions.  The  city  is  built  around 
a  large  plaza,  or  square,  in  which  the  market  is  held ;  the 
streets  are  straight  and  rectangular,  and  the  houses  in  the 
main  part  of  the  town  are  constructed  of  stone.  It  is  about 
one  hundred  and  sixty  miles  northwest  of  the  capital,  with 
which  it  has  no  commercial  intercourse,  its  seaport  being 
the  town  of  Puerta  Plata,  on  the  north  coast.  It  lies  in  the 
heart  of  the  finest  agricultural  region  of  the  island.  Its 
climate  is  salubrious.  The  population  of  eight  thousand 
is  largely  composed  of  whites,  many  of  whom  are  intelh- 
gent  and  well  educated.  The  place  controls  fhe  tobacco- 
trade^  which  is  largely  in  the  hands  of  the  G-ermans. 


262  CUBA   AND   POKTO   KICO 

Concepcion  de  la  Vega,  on  the  river  Camu,  one  of  the 
tributaries  of  the  Yuna,  a  short  distance  from  Santiago,  is 
the  successor  to  a  famous  old  town  established  by  Colum- 
bus in  1504,  which  was  located  six  miles  northwest.  This 
town  lies  in  the  center  of  a  beautiful  savanna  completely 
surrounded  by  hills,  and  is  laid  out  rectangularly,  with  the 
usual  plaza  in  the  center.  It  has  a  cathedral  out  of  all 
proportion  to  the  population,  an  imposing  structure  of 
stone  with  many  arches.  Six  miles  from  the  town  is 
the  famous  cerro  of  Columbus,  which  I  have  previously 
mentioned.  Upon  the  level  top  of  this  hill  is  a  wooden 
church  belonging  to  the  Brothers  of  Mercy  and  command- 
ing a  superb  view  of  the  Vega  Eeal. 

Puerta  Plata  is  the  principal  northern  seaport,  having 
good  anchorage  and  an  extensive  trade  in  tobacco.  It 
has  an  estimated  population  of  fifteen  thousand,  and  is 
the  outlet  of  the  Vega  Real  district,  being  connected  by 
rail  with  Santiago.  It  is  said  that  this  city  was  planned 
by  Columbus  on  his  first  voyage. 

Azua  de  la  Compostela,  situated  about  fifty-five  miles 
west  of  San  Domingo  city,  is  the  next  town  of  importance 
on  the  south  coast,  but  has  only  fifteen  hundred  inhabi- 
tants. It  is  in  an  arid  plain,  previously  described,  but  the 
adjacent  country  abounds  in  salt  and  asphaltum,  and  near 
by  are  vast  grazing-grounds  as  well  as  prosperous  cane- 
fields. 

Of  the  many  villages,  Samana,  on  the  northern  side  of 
Samana  Bay,  has  about  one  thousand  inhabitants ;  Monte 
Cristi,  on  the  northern  coast,  thirty  miles  east  of  Cape 
Haitien,  three  thousand ;  and  Seybo,  fifty  miles  northeast 
of  San  Domingo  city,  five  thousand. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

THE  REPUBLIC  OF  HAITI 

Its  mountainous  character.  Extensive  coast-line.  Its  constitution  and 
organization.  Education  and  religion.  Commerce  and  revenue. 
Communication.  Cities  (Cape  Haitien,  Port  de  Paix,  Gonaiives,  St. 
Marc,  Port-au-Prince,  Aux  Cayes).  The  people.  Supremacy  of  the 
blacks.  Race  antipathies.  Personal  appearance  and  domestic  rela- 
tions of  the  Haitians.  Superstitions.  The  struggle  for  Hberty.  The 
blacks  not  to  blame  for  the  condition  of  the  repubUc.  Island  products 
and  commerce. 

THE  republic  of  Haiti,  which  occupies  the  western 
third  of  Santo  Domingo,  is  quite  a  different  country 
from  San  Domingo,  in  its  natural,  political,  and  sociologic 
features.  While  the  latter  country  is  decadent  in  its  agri- 
cultural, commercial,  and  governmental  conditions,  Haiti 
has  the  merit  of  being  thoroughly  alive,  and,  while  not 
presenting  an  altogether  pleasing  picture,  is  a  country 
worthy  of  serious  study  and  capable  of  development.  Its 
area  is  10,204  English  square  miles. 

As  has  been  said  by  others,  the  configuration  of  the 
country  appears  a  confused  agglomeration  of  mountains, 
hills,  and  valleys,  most  irregular  in  form — precipices,  deep 
hollows,  vales  apparently  without  an  outlet,  but  with 
water  occasionally  glistening  far  below,  and  cottages  scat- 
tered here  and  there,  with  groves  of  fruit-trees  and  ba- 
nanas clustering  round  the  rude  dwellings.  Gradually, 
however,  the  eye,  growing  accustomed  to  the  scene,  sepa- 
rates the  mountains  into  distinct  ranges,  the  hills  into  at- 

263 


264  CUBA   AND   PORTO   RICO 

tendant  buttresses,  the  valleys  assume  regular  forms 
as  watersheds,  and  the  streams  can  be  traced  irregularly- 
meandering  towards  the  ocean.  Toward  the  sea  the 
valleys  extend  into  plains,  the  rushing  torrents  be- 
come broad  though  shallow  rivers,  and  mountains  that 
bound  the  flat  open  country  push  their  buttresses  almost 
into  the  sea. 

The  whole  of  the  republic  is  more  or  less  mountainous, 
the  most  noted  mountain  ranges  being  the  La  Haute  and 
Black  Mountains  (which  constitute  the  axes  of  the  two 
projecting  peninsulas),  and  a  line  of  high  summits  on  the 
eastern  frontier. 

The  La  Haute  range  is  a  continuation  of  the  great  axial 
sierra  of  the  island,  while  the  Black  Mountains  constitute 
the  peculiar  isolated  southern  group  previously  described. 
Notwithstanding  the  generally  mountainous  configura- 
tion, there  are  many  beautiful  slopes  and  valleys,  such  as 
the  cul-de-sac  near  Port-au-Prince,  the  plains  of  Gonaives, 
Artibonite,  Arcahaie,  Port  Margot,  Leogane,  Aux  Cayes, 
and  those  that  follow  the  northern  coast.  There  are  a  few 
islands  attached  to  Haiti,  the  principal  of  which  are  La 
Tortue  on  the  north,  Gronave  on  the  west,  and  L'tle-a- 
Vache  on  the  south  coast.  The  first  two  are  famous  for 
their  mahogany-trees. 

The  republic  has  a  large  extent  of  accessible  coast-line, 
marked  by  numerous  bays  and  inlets,  including  eleven 
ports  open  to  foreign  commerce,  and  numerous  smaller 
ports  open  only  to  the  coasting-trade. 

The  largest  river  of  Haiti  is  the  Artibonite,  which  flows 
to  the  west  through  the  great  central  valley  of  the  same 
name.  There  are  forty-three  other  streams  distinguished 
by  their  names. 

The  flora  of  Haiti  has  been  only  partially  explored  by 
Tussac,  Descom-tils,  and  others.  It  is  unmarked  by  arid 
types  like  those  of  the  plains  of  San  Domingo,  and  in- 
cludes one  hundred  and  sixty  plants  supposed  to  possess 
medicinal  properties.    No  cultivation,  gathering,  or  expor- 


THE  KEPUBLIC   OF  HAITI  265 

tation  of  anything  in  this  line  for  commercial  purposes 
appears  ever  to  have  been  undertaken. 

The  government,  though  republican  in  form,  has  been 
described  as  a  military  despotism  in  which  all  the  power 
is  concentrated  in  the  hands  of  the  president,  who  en- 
forces or  ignores  the  laws  according  to  his  pleasure.  It  is 
true  that  the  government  is  more  or  less  despotic,  and  is 
too  often  marked  by  revolutions.  Of  the  eleven  rulers  of 
the  island  since  its  freedom,  nearly  all  have  been  assas- 
sinated or  exiled.  Only  one  has  escaped  being  either  shot 
or  deported,  and  only  two  ever  completed  their  terms  of 
office.  Nevertheless,  there  is  a  semblance  of. civilized 
government,  more  advanced  than  has  been  represented, 
which  appears  especially  liberal  in  comparison  with  the 
low  degree  of  culture  of  the  inhabitants  and  their  past 
treatment. 

The  republic  has  a  constitution  in  which,  notwith- 
standing frequent  amendment,  the  essential  principles  of 
free  republican  government  have  beeg  preserved  since  the 
time  of  Dessahnes,  and  in  general  the  changes  made  in  it 
from  time  to  time  have  shown  a  steady  tendency  toward 
liberalism.  For  example,  in  addition  to  the  provisions  as 
to  the  inviolability  of  the  territory,  the  absolute  freedom 
of  religious  worship,  and  the  equality  of  citizens  before 
the  law,  it  provides  for  the  independence  of  the  judi- 
ciary, trial  by  jury,  individual  freedom,  exemption  from 
unlawful  domiciliary  visits  and  arbitrary  arrests,  encour- 
agement of  education  (primary-school  attendance  being 
made  obligatory),  the  freedom  of  the  press  and  of  speech, 
the  sacredness  of  epistolary  correspondence,  the  inhibi- 
tion of  ex  post  facto  laws,  the  security  of  property  rights, 
and  individual  responsibility  for  public  acts. 

Furthermore,  although  until  within  a  recent  period 
citizenship  was  restricted  to  persons  of  African  origin, 
and  the  right  to  possess  property  went  with  citizenship, 
just  as  it  did  in  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies  up  to  1870, 
and  just  as  it  does  now  to  some  extent  in  some  of  the 


266  CUBA  AND  POETO  EICO 

States  of  the  American  Union,  yet  the  constitution  ex- 
pressly provides  that  every  foreigner  can  become  a  citizen 
by  fulfilling  the  regulations  established  by  law. 

As  the  origin  of  the  republic,  its  language,  its  traditions, 
the  manners  and  social  customs  of  its  people,  are  essen- 
tially French,  so  its  laws  and  forms  of  legal  procedure  are 
based  on  those  of  France.  Indeed,  as  far  as  possible  they 
are  an  exact  copy  of  those  prevailing  in  France.  The 
Code  Napoleon,  which  has  so  strong  a  foothold  in  all  coun- 
tries of  Latin  origin,  is  probably  more  closely  followed  in 
Haiti  than  in  any  other  of  the  American  republics.  The 
legislative  power  rests  in  the  National  Assembly,  divided 
into  two  chambers,  the  Senate  and  House  of  Eepresenta- 
tives.  The  latter  is  elected  for  the  term  of  three  years 
by  the  direct  vote  of  all  male  citizens  engaged  in  some  oc- 
cupation ;  while  the  thirty-nine  members  of  the  Senate  are 
nominated  for  six  years  by  the  House  of  Representatives 
from  two  lists  presented  by  the  executive  and  the  elec- 
toral colleges.  The  executive  power  is  in  the"  hands  of  a 
president,  who,  according  to  the  constitution,  must  be 
elected  by  the  people,  but  in  recent  years  has  generally 
been  chosen  by  the  National  Assembly,  and  in  some  in- 
stances by  the  troops,  and  by  delegates  of  parties  acting 
as  representatives  of  the  people.  The  nominal  term  of  the 
office  of  the  president  is  seven  years.  The  present  presi- 
dent of  the  republic  is  General  Tiresias  Simon  Sam,  elected 
in  1896,  who  receives  a  salary  of  $22,800. 

The  divisions  of  the  country  are,  like  those  of  France, 
departments,  arrondissements,  and  communes.  The  gen- 
eral of  the  department  and  the  general  of  the  arrondisse- 
ment  are  the  officers  to  whom  all  powers  are  delegated, 
although  there  are  hosts  of  minor  officials.  These  generals 
are  despotic,  as  a  rule,  and  their  dictum  is  law,  as  they  are 
seldom  called  to  account  for  their  actions  by  the  superior 
authority. 

There  are  five  departments,  twenty-three  arrondisse- 
ments, and  sixty-seven  communes.    The  chief  department, 


THE  REPUBLIC   OF   HAITI  267 

near  the  center  of  the  republic,  is  that  of  the  West,  in 
which  Port-au-Prince  is  situated.  The  Department  of  the 
North,  of  which  Cape  Haitien  is  the  capital,  is  the  most 
troublesome,  on  account  of  the  revolutionary  ideas  of  its 
inhabitants.  The  people  are  always  restless  and  dislike 
the  inhabitants  of  the  rest  of  the  republic.  The  Depart- 
ment of  the  South,  which  includes  the  western  half  of  the 
Tiburon  peninsula,  is  the  most  backward  of  all,  has  been 
generally  neglected,  and  is  inhabited  by  wild  people.  Aux 
Cayes  is  the  capital  of  this  province. 

Haiti  has  an  army  of  6828  men,  chiefly  infantry.  There 
is  a  special  Gruard  of  the  Grovernment,  numbering  650  men, 
commanded  by  ten  generals,  who  also  act  as  aides-de-camp 
to  the  president.  The  republic  also  possesses  a  flotilla  of  six 
small  vessels  officered  by  Americans  and  Europeans,  which 
may  be  ranked  as  third-class  cruisers. 

From  1804  to  the  present  the  moral  welfare  of  Haiti  has 
been  largely  neglected  by  other  nations  and  people,  who 
have  extended  to  it  neither  sympathy,  recognition,  nor  aid. 
It  was  not  until  1862  that  the  Senate  of  the  United  States, 
on  the  recommendation  of  President  Lincoln,voted  to  recog- 
nize its  political  independence ;  and  the  concordat  with  the 
Pope  in  1869,  whereby  the  Catholic  Church  undertook  mis- 
sion work  on  the  island,  is  the  only  spiritual  assistance  of 
any  kind  it  has  received.  It  is  true  that  occasional  mis- 
sionaries have  attempted  work  upon  the  island.  Various 
denominations  have  labored  in  the  same  field  without 
clashing  or  without  friction  with  one  another,  and  the 
government  has  continually  endeavored  to  increase  their 
membership. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church,  although  the  established 
religion,  has  never  been  popular.  Among  the  lower  class 
the  influence  of  voodooism  and  the  fanatical  opposition  of 
the  Catholic  priesthood  to  Freemasonry,  which  is  a  strong 
influence,  have  combined  to  prevent  the  church  from  gain- 
ing either  the  confidence  or  affection  of  the  nation.  Even 
over  women  the  priests  exercise  less  influence  than  in 


268  CUBA   AND   POBTO   KICO 

other  countries.  The  Catholic  priests,  who  are  paid  by 
the  state,  are  comparatively  few  in  number,  and  dislike 
heartily  the  life  in  the  interior.  The  republic  is  divided 
into  five  dioceses,  and  there  are  one  hundred  and  ten 
priests.  There  are,  however,  only  eighty-four  parishes, 
although  there  are  chapels  in  many  places  where  services 
are  occasionally  held. 

Religious  toleration  in  other  countries  came  after  long 
struggles  between  different  denominations.  Haiti  is  an 
exception  to  all  such  precedents,  inasmuch  as  without 
possessing,  so  far  as  is  known,  a  single  Protestant  citizen, 
and  certainly  without  one  Protestant  church  or  even  one 
Protestant  meeting  ever  having  been  held  there,  she  boldly 
proclaimed  religious  freedom  and  her  independence  at  the 
same  time. 

From  the  date  of  independence  until  1869,  while  the 
Catholic  religion  had  never  ceased  to  be  fostered  by  the 
state  or  to  be  professed  by  the  Haitian  citizens,  the  eccle- 
siastical system  remained  in  a  semidisorganized  state,  and 
the  church  lost  the  affection  and  respect  of  the  people.  In 
1869  President  Jeffrad  concluded  a  concordat  with  the 
Holy  See,  agreeing  to  pay  a  rehabilitated  priesthood  from 
the  treasury  of  the  state  and  to  furnish  it  with  suitable 
residences.  Soon  afterward  the  church  was  put  on  a 
regular  footing,  which  has  since  been  sustained.  In  the 
hope  of  raising  up  a  native  priesthood,  and  in  order  that 
there  might  always  be  at  hand  priests  especially  prepared 
for  the  work  in  Haiti,  the  church  established  at  Paris  the 
Grand  Seminary  of  Haiti,  which  is  still  maintained.  There 
is  an  Episcopal  bishop,  but  he  receives  little  pecuniary 
support,  and  the  Protestant  population  does  not  number 
four  thousand  souls.  The  Haitians  are  devoted  to  Free- 
masonry, and  love  to  surround  the  funerals  of  their  breth- 
ren with  all  the  pomp  of  the  order. 

The  government  of  Haiti  has  always  manifested  a  com- 
mendable concern  for  the  education  of  the  youth  of  the 
country,  and  to  that  end  has  never  ceased  to  encourage 


THE  KEPUBLIC   OF  HAITI  269 

the  establisliment  of  schools.  There  has  been  a  steady 
tendency  toward  increased  educational  facilities  at  public 
expense.  It  is  believed  that  no  less  than  five  thousand 
Haitian  girls  are  being  educated  under  the  care  of  the 
sisters  of  the  Koman  Church.  There  are  four  hundred 
national  schools,  besides  private  schools  and  five  lycees. 
Elementary  education  is  free,  the  country  being  divided 
into  fourteen  inspectors'  districts,  and  nearly  one  million 
dollars  allotted  annually.  In  1876  there  were  four  lycees, 
six  superior  girls'  schools,  five  secondary  schools,  one  hun- 
dred and  sixty-five  primary  schools,  two  hundred  rural 
schools,  one  school  of  medicine,  and  one  of  music,  with  a 
total  of  twenty  thousand  pupils.  The  Sisters  of  Charity 
and  Christian  Brothers  have  schools  in  Port-au-Prince. 

The  unit  of  money  on  the  island  is  the  gourde^  or  dollar^ 
the  nominal  value  of  which  is  that  of  the  American  dol- 
lar, but  this  so  fluctuates  that  the  annual  average  may  be 
seventeen  per  cent,  premium  on  the  American  dollar.  The 
revenue  of  Haiti  is  derived  exclusively  from  customs  paid 
in  American  gold  on  exports,  and  in  currency  gourdes  on 
imports.  The  external  debt  of  1887  was  $13,476,113,  and 
the  internal  debt  about  the  same. 

The  imports  of  Haiti  in  1895  were  $6,232,335,  and  the 
exports  $13,788,562,  showing  a  heavy  balance  of  trade  in 
favor  of  the  island.  The  exports  consist  chiefly  of  coffee, 
cocoa,  and  logwood.  In  1895  the  quantities  exported  were 
as  follows:  coffee,  75,371,865  pounds;  cocoa,  2,291,548 
pounds ;  logwood,  138,042,053  pounds.  Other  exports  are 
cotton,  gum,  and  honey.  Of  the  imports  in  1896  the  value 
of  $4,134,000  came  from  the  United  States;  $1,340,000 
from  France;  $304,000  from  Germany;  $206,000  from 
Great  Britain.  In  1896,  260  vessels  entered  at  Port-au- 
Prince,  189  at  Cape  Haitien,  and  161  at  Aux  Cayes. 

It  will  be  seen  that,  notwithstanding  Haiti's  political  and 
social  degradation,  it  is  financially  more  prosperous  than 
the  more  highly  civilized  West  Indies,  excepting  Cuba,  and 
shows  the  largest  balance  of  trade.    It  is  also  interesting 


270  CUBA   AND    PORTO   KICO 

to  US  from  the  fact  that  it  gives  our  country  a  proportion- 
ate exchange  in  trade  for  our  purchases  of  its  products. 

Haiti  is  in  treaty  relations  with  most  of  the  great  coun- 
tries of  the  world,  and  maintains  six  legations— at  Paris, 
Washington,  Berlin,  Madrid,  London,  and  San  Domingo. 
There  are  also  more  than  fifty  consuls-general,  consuls, 
and  vice-consuls,  stationed  at  as  many  different  ports  in 
the  United  States,  on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  in  the  An- 
tilles, Europe,  and  elsewhere.  The  island's  diplomatic 
representatives  have  always  acquitted  themselves  credi- 
tably, and  each  of  them  speaks  the  language  of  the  country 
to  which  he  is  accredited.  Mr.  Stephen  Preston  was  the 
Haitian  minister  at  Washington  continuously  for  nearly 
twenty  years,  and  during  a  third  of  that  time  he  was  the 
dean  of  the  diplomatic  corps.  As  far  as  the  general  public 
knows,  there  are  pending  between  other  governments  and 
Haiti  no  questions  of  sufficient  importance  to  affect  her 
dignity,  menace  her  autonomy,  or  interfere  with  the  free 
working  of  the  ordinary  machinery  for  administering  her 
internal  affairs. 

It  may  be  stated  that,  in  the  long  run  and  in  her  own 
way,  Haiti  always  meets  every  financial  obligation ;  and  it 
is  an  acknowledged  fact  that  she  has  sometimes  consented 
to  pay,  and  has  paid,  claims  which  no  great  powers  like 
France  or  Great  Britain  would  have  been  expected  to  rec- 
ognize, taking  this  course  in  order  to  avoid  what  seemed 
at  the  moment  possible  complications  with  foreign  powers, 
which  have  appeared  to  be  only  too  ready  to  take  advan- 
tage of  her  comparative  isolation  and  weakness. 

By  far  the  most  important  agricultural  product  of  Haiti 
is  coffee ;  indeed,  so  important  is  this  that  the  prosperity 
of  the  country  is  measured  by  it  from  year  to  year.  The 
plant  flourishes  everywhere  in  the  uplands  above  three 
hundred  feet.  The  quality  is  most  excellent,  but  owing  to 
the  imperfect  and  indifferent  way  in  which,  until  within  a 
few  years,  it  was  gathered  and  prepared,  it  has  never  be- 
come a  favorite  in  the  United  States,  and  most  of  it  finds 


THE  EEPUBLIC   OF  HAITI  271 

its  way  to  France  and  Belgium  for  consumption.  A  good 
crop  for  export  is  set  down  at  seventy  million  poundls. 

Logwood  is  second  in  importance  to  coffee.  It  is  con- 
sidered to  be  of  the  best  quality.  The  amount  of  it  exported 
annually  depends  on  the  energy  of  the  people  in  cutting 
it.  The  average  yearly  exportation  is  about  178,000,000 
pounds. 

Cocoa  comes  in  as  a  sort  of  adjunct  to  coffee.  While  it 
is  found  in  several  localities,  it  cannot  be  said  to  flourish 
and  abound.  The  bulk  of  it  is  grown  on  the  western  half 
of  the  Tiburon  peninsula. 

Cotton  also,  a  product  not  usually  found  in  the  West 
Indies,  is  gi-own  in  Haiti.  During  the  Civil  War  as  much 
as  four  and  a  half  million  pounds  was  grown ;  but  with  the 
fall  in  price  the  product  was  reduced  to  less  than  one  and 
a  half  million  pounds  for  export  in  1892.  It  gi'ows  with 
extraordinary  facility,  requiring  no  culture  whatever.  It 
does  not  grow  on  bushes,  but  on  trees,  which  last  several 
years  and  produce  two  crops  annually.  It  is  of  a  fine  silky 
quality,  and  its  culture  might  be  made  exceedingly  profit- 
able, as  no  country  in  the  world  is  better  adapted  to  its 
growth. 

Besides  the  logwood,  other  woods  are  regularly  exported, 
including  mahogany,  lignum- vitae,  bois-jaune  (West  Indian 
sandalwood),  and  bayarondes.  Mahogany  is  the  most  im- 
portant of  these  and  is  of  excellent  quality.  There  has 
been  a  marked  falling  off  of  this  exportation  since  1867, 
due  largely  to  the  fact  of  the  exhaustion  of  available  mate- 
rial within  the  limits  of  profitable  transportation  to  the  sea- 
board. 

It  must  be  confessed  that  the  products  of  Haiti  are 
chiefly  those  which  require  little  human  toil,  and  that  its 
agricultural  possibilities  are  hardly  drawn  upon.  Coffee 
is,  in  fact,  the  only  cultivated  crop  of  importance,  and 
even  many  of  the  coffee-trees  are  self-propagated.  The 
blacks  upon  attaining  their  freedom  permitted  the  island 
to  return  to  its  primeval  state.    In  colonial  times  the  island 


272  CUBA   AND   PORTO   EICO 

produced  nearly  two  million  English  pounds  of  sugar, 
valued  at  $25,000,000,  besides  valuable  crops  of  indigo  and 
more  coffee  than  is  now  exported.  Under  favorable  con- 
ditions the  capacity  of  the  island  for  production  is  almost 
incalculable.  There  is  no  article  produced  in  the  tropics 
that  is  not  found  or  that  could  not  be  raised  in  Haiti  with 
profit.  It  would  seem  that  almost  anything  could  be 
grown  either  in  the  uplands  or  the  lowlands  of  this  beau- 
tiful country.  Even  pineapples,  peaches,  strawberries, 
blackberries,  and  other  fruits  are  found  in  the  uplands. 
Those  who  have  watched  the  rise  and  remarkable  growth 
of  the  export  of  fruits  from  the  neighboring  island  of 
Jamaica  within  the  past  few  years,  and  who  have  any 
knowledge  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil  of  Haiti,  assert  that 
no  argument  need  be  used  to  show  that  under  reasonably 
favorable  conditions  the  exportation  of  fruit  could  easily 
be  made  profitable.  Oranges  (sweet  and  sour),  citrons, 
plantains,  bananas,  lemons,  shaddocks,  pineapples,  cocoa- 
nuts,  mangos,  artichokes,  alligator- pears,  sapodillas,  and 
the  like  abound.  It  is  said  that  mango  is  so  common  that 
during  the  height  of  its  season,  from  May  to  June,  the  sale 
of  breadstuffs  falls  off  as  much  as  fifty  per  cent. 

Absolutely  nothing  is  known  of  the  geological  and 
mineral  resources  of  Haiti,  although  gold,  platinum,  silver, 
copper,  iron  ore,  tin,  manganese,  antimony,  sulphur,  rock- 
salt,  bitumen,  asphaltum,  and  phosphates  exist,  some  of 
them  in  quantities.  Mining  interests  have  hitherto  been 
entirely  neglected,  and  there  are  no  laws  on  the  subject  in 
the  country.  It  has  been  the  policy  of  the  government 
not  to  encourage  enterprises  that  might  tend  to  prostrate 
or  impair  the  agricultural  spirit  and  industry  of  the  people. 

Communication  in  Haiti,  where  there  are  thirty-one 
post-offices,  is  maintained  entirely  by  overland  roads  and 
coasting- vessels.  Most  of  the  highways  are  notoriously 
bad,  especially  those  leading  from  the  central  valley  over 
the  mountains  to  the  northern  and  southern  coasts.  The 
roads  in  the  interior  are,  in  most  cases,  little  more  than 


STREET  SCENE  STREET  SCENE 

PORT-AU-PRINCE,  HAITI 


THE  REPUBLIC   OF  HAITI  273 

mule-paths.  This  is  due  partly  to  neglect  and  partly  to 
topographical  conditions  which  expose  them  to  the  de- 
structive influences  of  torrential  rains.  In  the  time  of  the 
French  occupation  many  of  them  were  kept  in  excellent 
condition,  and  as  late  as  the  empire  of  Soulouque,  car- 
riages and  other  vehicles  could  be  freely  used  through  quite 
a  number  of  localities  where  vehicular  transportation  is 
not  now  practicable.  The  fact  that  the  republic  once  had 
good  roads,  and  that  in  the  island  of  Martinique,  where  the 
conditions  for  maintaining  them  are  quite  as  difficult  as  in 
Haiti,  French  engineering  has  established  and  maintains 
the  best  of  highways,  proves  the  possibilities  in  this  respect 
of  the  latter  country.  The  present  government  appears  to 
be  alive  to  the  necessity  of  better  transportation  facilities. 
A  coast  service,  maintained  since  1863,  is  carried  on  by 
four  steamers.  These  are  aided  by  the  government,  and 
their  regular  trips  are  so  arranged  that  they  cover  the 
whole  extent  of  the  Haitian  coast  every  ten  days,  taking 
passengers  and  mails,  and  touching  regularly  at  no  less 
than  twenty-six  ports.  The  northern  route  covers  two 
hundred  and  forty  and  the  southern  three  hundred  and 
fifteen  miles  of  the  coast. 

.  The  foreign  communication  is  excellent,  the  country 
being  visited  by  more  lines  of  foreign  steamers  than 
any  other  West  Indian  island.  Haiti  has  regular  com- 
munication with  New  York  by  the  Atlas  Steamship 
Company  and  the  Royal  Dutch  West  India  Mail  Service 
Company,  and  the  William  P.  Clyde  &  Company  line.  The 
Royal  Mail  Steaniship  Company's  steamers  call  every  sec- 
ond week  at  Jaemel,  affording  connection  with  the  Lesser 
Antilles  and  England.  The  Compagnie  Generale  Trans- 
atlantique's  steamers,  sailing  from  Havre  and  Bordeaux 
to  Vera  Cruz,  stop  at  Cape  Haitien  on  the  7th,  and  at 
Pprt-au-Prince  on  the  8th  of  each  month,  and  on  their 
homeward  run  touch  at  those  ports  on  the  27th  of  each 
month.  This  company  also  has  an  annex  steamer  which, 
starting  from  Fort-de-France,  calls  once  or  twice  a  month 


274  CUBA  AND  POETO  RICO 

at  Jacmel,  Port-au-Prince,  Petit  Groave,  Jer^mie,  Aux 
Cayes,  and  numerous  other  places  in  the  West  Indies. 
The  Spanish  Eoyal  Mail  steamer  calls  at  Port-au-Prince  en 
route  to  Cuba,  Mexico,  the  United  States,  and  Europe. 
The  Havana  coasting-steamers  between  Havana  and  San- 
tiago de  Cuba  and  Porto  Eico  also  call  at  Port-au-Prince. 
Connection  is  had  with  Germany  by  the  Hamburg  Mail 
Steamship  Company. 

Haiti  has  numerous  ports  along  its  extensive  littoral, 
eleven  of  which  are  open  to  foreign  commerce.  Each  of 
these  eleven  ports,  the  principal  of  which  will  be  described 
later,  is  an  outlet  to  a  comparatively  large,  populous,  and 
productive  country  lying  back  of  it.  Grenerally  the  exports 
and  imports  reach  far  beyond  what  one  might  be  led  to 
expect  if  guided  by  the  appearance  and  size  of  the  ports 
themselves.  Competent  authorities  have  observed  that 
the  volume  of  business  done  at  Port-au-Prince  is  as  great 
as  that  of  any  other  city  of  its  size  in  the  world.  These 
seaports  impress  the  visitor  unfavorably,  because  he  finds 
there  very  little  of  the  aspect  of  neatness  and  prosperity 
which  characterizes  the  other  cities  and  towns  of  the  An- 
tilles. The  wharves  are  dilapidated;  the  port  service  is 
slow  and  inefficient;  the  streets  and  sidewalks  are  poorly 
kept;  the  stores  and  dwellings  have  an  irregular  look; 
hotels  are  scarce  and  poor ;  the  streets  are  not  lighted,  and 
the  roads  leading  into  and  throughout  the  interior  are  in 
a  very  bad  condition. 

Besides  the  eleven  ports  fully  open  to  foreign  com- 
merce, there  are  four  at  which  vessels  are  permitted  to 
take  cargo,  but  not  formally  to  enter  from  or  clear  for  the 
high  seas.  They  are  Fort  Liberte,  on  the  northern  coast, 
east  of  Cape  Haitien;  Mole  St.  Nicolas,  at  the  north- 
western extremity  of  the  island ;  Anse  d'Hainault,  which 
was  once  an  open  port,  at  the  end  of  the  western  penin- 
sula ;  and  Port-a-Piment,  between  Cape  Tiburon  and  Aux 
Cayes.  • 

There  are  also  at  least  twenty  other  small  ports  not  open 


the;  REPUBLIC  OF  HAITI  275 

to  foreign  trade,  mostly  in  the  south  and  west,  which  afford 
fairly  safe  approach  and  anchorage  to  vessels,  and  all  of 
which  contribute  more  or  less  to  the  coasting-trade. 

The  principal  coastal  cities,  beginning  on  the  north 
side,  are  Cape  Haitien,  Port  de  Paix,  Gonaives,  Port-au- 
Prince,  Petit  Goave,  Miragoane,  Jeremie,  Aux  Cayes,  and 
Jacmel. 

Cape  Haitien,  or,  as  it  is  universally  called  in  Haiti,  "  the 
Cape,"  on  the  northern  coast,  is  the  most  picturesque  town 
in  the  republic.  It  is  beautifully  situated  on  a  commodious 
harbor  having  a  narrow  entrance,  which  could  be  most 
easily  defended.  This  town  is  the  second  in  size  and  im- 
portance in  the  republic,  and  is  by  many  considered  the 
most  picturesque  city  in  the  island;  it  is  situated  at  the 
foot  of  a  hill  which  slopes  gradually  to  the  sea,  and  is 
hemmed  in  on  three  sides  by  mountains.  Its  population 
is  estimated  at  twenty-nine  thousand,  but  this  undoubtedly 
includes  the  people  of  the  adjacent  commune.  Under  the 
rule  of  the  French,  it  was  the  gay  capital  of  the  colony, 
and  its  wealth  and  splendors  and  luxury  gained  for  it  the 
name  "Little  Paris," or  the  "Paris  of  Haiti."  It  was  also 
the  capital  of  black  King  Henri's  dominions.  It  was  beau- 
tifully laid  out,  and  built  on  the  plan  of  some  of  the  older 
European  cities,  with  the  rigoles,  or  gutters,  in  the  middle 
of  the  streets.  The  Cape  is  further  noted  as  having  been 
the  scene  of  a  terrible  earthquake  in  1842,  when,  in  an 
instant,  it  was  nearly  all  thrown  into  ruins,  and  several 
thousand  inhabitants  perished.  Sir  Spenser  St.  John  says 
that  to  this  day  the  country  people  talk  of  that  awful 
event,  and  never  forget  to  relate  how  they  rushed  in  to 
plunder  the  place,  and  none  lent  a  helping  hand  to  aid  the 
half -buried  citizens.  It  has  also  suffered  from  a  bombard- 
ment by  the  British  (in  1865),  from  civil  commotions  and 
disastrous  fires. 

In  spite  of  all  these  misfortunes,  and  in  spite,  too,  of  the 
fact,  striking  to  the  new  visitor,  that  many  of  the  fine 
buildings  thrown  down  by  the  great  earthquake  have 


276  CUBA  AND   POETO  KICO 

never  yet  been  rebuilt,  the  Cape  is  to-day  the  center,  so  to 
speak,  of  a  remarkably  thriving  and  prosperous  district,  of 
large  and  increasing  business  interests,  promising  well  for 
the  future.  Here,  as  at  other  ports  facing  the  sea  to  the 
north,  the  trade- winds  come  over  the  cool  blue  waters,  and 
the  tropical  heats  are  greatly  modified.  This  city  is  the 
terminus  of  the  French  line  of  oceanic  cable  leading  directly 
to  New  York,  Cuba,  and  Jamaica. 

Commercially  contributing  towns  and  communes  are  La 
Plaine  du  Nord  (population  5000),  L'Acul  du  Nord  (10,000), 
and  Milot  (6000).  Near  Milot  are  still  to  be  seen  the  truly 
imposing  ruins  of  Christophe's  palace  of  Sans  Souci,  and 
not  far  off  those  of  his  wonderful  citadel.  La  Ferriere,  which 
from  its  mountain  height  overlooked  and  commanded  the 
commune.  It  is  of  the  most  solid  masonry,  every  stone  of 
which  is  said  to  have  cost  a  human  life,  and  covers  the  whole 
peak  of  the  mountain.  Some  of  the  walls  were  eighty  feet  in 
height  and  sixteen  feet  in  thickness.  Years  of  labor  were 
spent  to  build  this  citadel,  which  was  destroyed  in  a  few 
minutes  by  an  earthquake. 

The  northern  province  is  noted  for  its  fertility,  abun- 
dance of  rain,  numerous  rivers,  and  the  superior  intelligence 
and  industry  of  its  inhabitants. 

Port  de  Paix,  named  by  Columbus  Valparaiso  ("  Valley  of 
Paradise"),  is  several  hours'  sail  westward  from  Cape  Hai- 
tien,  about  midway  between  that  city  and  Mole  St.  Nicolas. 
It  is  a  town  of  ten  thousand  inhabitants,  and  is  noted  as  the 
last  point  evacuated  by  the  French  in  December,  1803.  It 
is  well  situated  at  the  mouth  of  Les  Trois-Rivieres,  facing 
the  famous  lie  de  la  Tortue,  and  is  considered  healthful. 
It  has  a  good  harbor  in  front,  and  a  fine,  rich  country 
behind  it.  Near  it,  a  little  to  the  south  of  east,  is  the  im- 
portant town  of  St.  Louis  du  Nord,  in  a  commune  which 
has  a  population  of  sixteen  thousand.  There  are  at  pres- 
ent on  foot  propositions  and  projects  looking  to  the  con- 
struction of  a  railway  from  Port  de  Paix  southward  through 
the  valley  of  the  Trois-Rivieres,  which  is  a  considerable 


THE   EEPUBLIC   OF   HAITI  277 

stream,  to  Gros  Morne,  a  commune  of  twenty-two  thousand 
inhabitants,  there  to  connect  by  an  offshoot  with  a  road 
projected  to  run  through  the  great  central  plain  of  the 
Artibonite. 

To  the  west  of  Cape  Haitien,  at  the  northwest  end  of  the 
Nicolas  peninsula,  is  Mole  St.  Nicolas,  the  place  where 
Europeans  first  landed.  This  superb  harbor,  called  the 
Gribraltar  of  the  New  World,  remained  almost  unsettled 
until  1764,  but  has  been  successively  peopled  by  French, 
Grerman,  and  English,  and  at  different  times  immense  sums 
of  money  have  been  spent  on  its  forts  and  walls,  now  dis- 
mantled and  ruined.  The  bay  makes  a  fine  picture  from 
the  sea,  and  ships  of  the  largest  size  can  ride  out  the  gales 
with  safety.  This  is  the  most  important  place  at  the 
Haitian  end  of  the  island,  commanding  as  it  does  the 
Windward  Channel  between  Haiti  and  Cuba.  The  western 
coast  is  sterile  and  barren,  the  shores  rising  in  level  plains 
or  terraces  called  platforms,  similar  to  those  of  eastern 
Cuba. 

Gonaives,  which  is  considered  more  purely  a  Haitian 
town  than  any  other  on  the  seaboard,  because  its  founda- 
tion and  origin  were  less  due  to  the  French  colonists,  is 
situated  opposite  Port  de  Paix,  on  the  southern  side  of  the 
northern  peninsula.  It  is  reached  from  Port  de  Paix  by  a 
.  few  houi's'  sail,  going  first  westward  to  the  Mole  St.  Nico- 
las, and  thence  sailing  to  the  east  again.  The  commune 
has  a  population  of  eighteen  thousand,  and  the  town  is  one 
of  the  most  thriving  in  the  republic ;  it  is  considered  health- 
ful, though  situated  in  the  midst  of  a  sandy,  salty  region. 
In  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  has  more  than  once  been  dev- 
astated by  revolutions  and  fires,  it  still  has  an  important 
foreign  commerce.  It  was  from  this  port  that  Toussaint 
L'Ouverture  was  embarked  as  a  captive  during  a  night  in 
June,  1802,  on  board  the  French  frigate  La  Creole^  and  it 
was  here,  too,  that  Dessalines  issued  the  declaration  of 
Haitian  independence,  January  1,  1804.  Within  its  dis- 
trict in  the  interior  are  the  communes  of  Terre  Neuve 


278  CUBA  AND   POKTO   EICO 

(population  6000),  Gros  Morne  (22,000),  and  Ennery  (6000), 
the  cherished  residence  of  Toussaint,  all  rich  and  produc- 
tive centers  of  population. 

St.  Marc  is  situated  about  half-way  between  Gonaives 
and  Port-au-Prince,  on  a  horseshoe-shaped  bay  whose 
waters  are  very  deep,  and  at  one  extremity  of  the  great 
plain  of  the  Artibonite,  Gronaives  being  at  the  other  ex- 
tremity. The  Artibonite  Eiver,  the  largest  in  Haiti,  flows 
into  the  bay  between  the  two  cities.  This  plain  faces  along 
the  coast  for  a  distance  of  about  fifty  miles,  and  stretches 
back  into  the  interior  for  fully  sixty  miles.  It  is  noted  for 
its  great  fertility  and  richness  in  eveiy  tropical  production, 
in  which  respect  it  has  hardly  a  superior.  There  are  now 
on  hand  projects,  pretty  well  matured,  for  running  a  rail- 
way through  it. 

^  St.  Marc  was  formerly  built  almost  entirely  of  stone,  but 
the  structures  of  that  material  have  gradually  given  place 
to  others  of  wood.  It  is  a  town  of  commercial  importance, 
the  population  of  the  commune  being  estimated  at  twenty 
thousand.  The  largest  place  behind  it  and  within  easy 
reach  is  Yerrettes  (communal  population  12,000). 

Port-au-Prince,  the  capital,  is  situated  at  the  extreme 
eastern  end  of  the  deep  indentation  of  the  Grulf  of  Gonaives. 
The  ground  slopes  most  gracefully  to  the  water's  edge. 
The  streets,  carefully  laid  out  at  right  angles  to  one  another 
by  the  original  French  settlers,  are  broad,  but  utterly  neg- 
lected. Every  one  throws  his  garbage  out  of  the  front 
door,  and  heaps  of  manure,  broken  bottles  and  crockery, 
and  every  species  of  rubbish  abound.  The  topographic 
position  of  the  city,  with  its  en\drons  of  mountains  and 
plains,  is  very  beautiful.  It  contains  about  sixty  thousand 
inhabitants,  and  possesses  every  natural  advantage  that  a 
capital  could  require.  Little  use,  however,  is  made  of 
these  advantages,  and  the  place  is  unpleasant,  owing  to 
the  lack  of  sanitation. 

The  national  palace  (of  wood),  the  qtiartiers  ministeres 
(the  offices  of  the  several  departments  of  the  government). 


THE  REPUBLIC  OF  HAITI  279 

some  of  the  buildings  devoted  to  commerce,  to  religious 
worship,  and  to  schools,  the  national  foundry,  and  other 
edifices,  would  be  regarded  as  creditable  to  any  country. 
Most  of  the  other  buildings  are  strikingly  shabby.  There 
are  many  small  cottages  and  huts  by  the  side  of  the  few 
decent-looking  dwellings.  The  larger  number  of  poorly 
constructed  houses  are  made  of  wood  imported  from  the 
United  States.  The  church  is  a  large  wooden  building 
disfigured  by  numerous  wretched  paintings,  in  which  the 
Saviour  is  occasionally  represented  as  an  ill-drawn  negro. 
It  is  said  that  there  are  more  than  a  thousand  "busses" 
(cabs)  licensed  to  carry  passengers  in  the  city,  at  twenty 
cents  a  "  course  "  (ride  from  one  place  to  another  without 
stopping)  within  the  city  limits.  It  is  well,  however,  for 
the  stranger  to  make  a  strict  bargain  with  his  driver  be- 
fore going  one  rod. beyond  those  limits. 

Port-au-Prince  is  well  supplied  with  pure  water  brought 
from  the  mountain-side  in  its  rear.  With  its  unstable 
government  (which  pays  no  attention  to  sanitation)  and 
its  great  heat,  this  city  ought  to  be  the  most  unhealthful 
place  in  the  tropics,  but  it  is  not  so.  In  a  few  of  the  more 
commercial  streets  where  foreigners  reside,  attention  is  paid 
to  cleanliness,  but  the  remainder  of  the  city  is  foul-smelling 
and  dirty.  The  most  common  diseases  are  bilious  and 
malarial  fevers.  Yellow  fever  is  exotic  in  Haiti,  being 
always  brought  from  abroad.  Fevers  of  a  typhoid  type 
are  rare.  Pulmonary  diseases  prevail  among  the  natives. 
Indeed,  Haiti  would  be  an  excellent  resort  for  persons 
afflicted  with  certain  diseases,  and  is  freer  from  epidemics 
than  most  other  tropical  countries.  Cholera  has  never  ap- 
peared there,  although  smallpox  and  yellow  fever  fre- 
quently break  out.  Physicians  of  Port-au-Prince  say  that 
Haiti  is  more  healthful  than  any  other  island  in  the  An- 
tilles. Furthermore,  its  environment  of  high  mountains, 
cutting  off  the  trade-winds,  is  such  as  to  make  it  the  hot- 
test place  in  the  island ;  but,  in  spite  of  all  that  has  been 
said  and  written  to  the  contrary,  it  is  not  now  regarded  as 


280  CUBA  AND   PORTO   RICO 

unhealthful  for  foreigners.  Some  of  its  immediate  en- 
virons, such  as  Turgeau, — which,  covered  with  commodious 
residences  of  the  wealthy,  is  on  the  hillside  behind  the 
large  and  beautiful  Champ  de  Mars,  on  which  are  two  well- 
kept  hotels,  Martissant  and  Bisotou,— overlook  the  bay  to 
the  right  of  the  capital,  and  are  about  four  or  five  miles 
from  it.  The  great  and  important  plain  of  the  cul-de-sac, 
in  which  are  situated  the  considerable  villages  Drouillard 
and  Croix  des  Bouquets,  are  quite  charming.  A  favorite 
place  for  foreigners  to  visit  is  Furey,  which  is  part  of  a 
day's  ride,  passing  Kenskoff  up  the  mountain  from  Petion- 
ville.  The  elevation  is  probably  not  far  from  six  thousand 
feet  at  this  place,  and  to  one  accustomed  to  the  heats  of 
the  capital  the  temperature  seems  absolutely  chilly,  though 
the  lowest  recorded  temperature  is  only  45°  F. 

Scattered  here  and  there  through  the  cul-de-sac,  and  run- 
ning up  to  the  mountain-sides  on  its  borders,  are  large  plan- 
tations under  cultivation.  In  some  instances  these  form 
communities  by  themselves,  the  laborers  on  each  of  them 
generally  working  on  shares,  and  having  schools  for  their 
children,  and  a  chapel  for  religious  worship  on  Sundays. 

Port-au-Prince  was  nearly  destroyed  by  an  earthquake 
in  1770.  The  curse  of  the  city  is  fire ;  immense  conflagra- 
tions have  been  frequent,  sometimes  destroying  as  many 
as  five  hundred  houses  at  a  time.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  the  equivalent  of  the  whole  city  at  any  one  time  has 
been  destroyed  in  the  course  of  every  twenty-five  years  by 
conflagration.  It  is  not,  however,  probable  that  this  will 
be  the  case  hereafter,  because  of  the  present  plentiful  sup- 
ply of  water,  the  introduction  of  suitable  means  for  com- 
bating fires,  and  the  tendency  to  erect  fire-proof  buildings 
rather  than  those  of  wood. 

Amid  all  vicissitudes  Port-au-Prince  has  maintained  its 
relative  commercial  importance,  although  the  beautiful 
port  is  being  gradually  filled  up  by  the  refuse  of  the  city 
and  the  silt  of  the  adjacent  mountains,  and  no  effort  is 
made  to  preserve  or  improve  it. 


THE  EEPUBLIC   OF   HAITI  281 

Petit  Groave  stands  facing  an  excellent  bay,  only  a  few 
leagues  to  the  westward  of  the  capital.  The  population  of 
the  commune  is  estimated  at  twenty-five  thousand.  Not 
far  to  the  southeast  of  it  is  the  lake  called  iStang  Duricie, 
which  is  filled  with  fish  and  turtles,  and  is  frequented  by 
wild  ducks  and  other  water-birds.  In  the  town  itself  is  a 
considerable  establishment  for  hulling  and  preparing  coffee. 

Miragoane,  still  farther  westward,  was  formerly  a  port 
of  fair  importance ;  but  the  town  itself  was  nearly  destroyed 
and  its  commerce  ruined  by  the  Bazelais'  attempt  at  revo- 
lution in  1883-84.  Its  communal  population  is  set  down 
at  eighteen  thousand. 

Jeremie,  the  birthplace  of  the  elder  Dumas,  lies  to  the 
west  of  Miragoane,  on  the  northern  coast  of  the  western 
peninsula  of  the  island,  and  is  noted  for  its  export  of  cocoa. 
It  is  a  prosperous  and  thriving  place,  and  its  population  is 
estimated  at  thirty-five  thousand.  It  stands  or  faces  on  a 
bay  whose  waters  are  often  so  turbulent  as  to  render  land- 
ing difficult. 

Aux  Cayes,  about  midway  on  the  Caribbean  side  of  the 
Tiburon  peninsula,  was  formerly  the  most  populous  and 
thriving  city  in  the  south  of  the  republic.  From  Jeremie 
it  is  reached  by  sailing  first  westward  to  Cape  Dame  Marie, 
th«n  turning  south  round  the  end  of  the  peninsula,  passing 
Cape  Tiburon,  and  finally  proceeding  east  along  the  south- 
ern coast.  It  has  a  commune  population  estimated  at 
twenty- five  thousand,  an  important  foreign  commerce,  and 
a  variety  of  domestic  industries.  A  small  stream  running 
through  it,  called  La  Ravine  du  Sud,  sometimes  inundates 
parts  of  the  city  in  the  rainy  seasons.  The  government 
has  recently  entered  upon  measures  to  correct  this  evil  and 
to  improve  the  harbor. 

Aquin  is  a  smaller  town  lying  only  a  few  miles  farther 
east  than  Aux  Cayes,  but  the  population  of  the  city  and 
commune  is  given  as  twenty  thousand.  From  its  ports 
are  shipped  large  quantities  of  dyewoods. 

Jacmel,  situated  on  the  southern  coast,  farther  east  than 


282  CUBA  AND  POETO  KICO 

Aquin,  is  an  interesting  and  prosperous  place.  M.  Fortu- 
nate estimates  the  population  at  fifty  thousand,  but  in  this, 
as  in  other  instances,  he  undoubtedly  includes  the  whole 
outlying  commune.  Tho  city  stands  at  the  extremity  of  a 
bay  whose  waters  are  very  frequently  boisterous.  The 
steamers  of  the  English  Royal  Mail  line  touch  here,  both 
on  their  outward  and  homeward  voyages.  The  journey 
from  Port-au-Prince  to  Jacmel  overland  is  by  mule-paths 
through  and  over  precipitous  mountain  passes,  and  between 
the  two  cities  there  is  a  very  winding  stream  which  it  is 
necessary  to  ford  an  astonishing  number  of  times,  and 
which,  in  the  rainy  season,  makes  the  journey  rather  dis- 
agreeable. Couriers,  however,  are  constantly  passing  from 
one  city  to  the  other. 

In  the  interior  are  a  number  of  other  considerable  and 
populous  towns.  They  are  mostly  to  the  north  and  east 
of  the  capital,  though  there  are  some  on  the  western  pe- 
ninsula, the  largest  of  the  latter  being  Leogane  (30,000). 
The  most  populous  of  the  interior  towns  is  Mirebalais 
(25,000),  about  fifteen  leagues  northeast  of  Port-au-Prince. 
Then  there  are,  in  the  northern  half  of  the  interior,  Gros 
Morne  (22,000),  Plaisance  (25,000),  Grande  Eiviere  du  Nord 
(22,000),  Limb6  (16,000),  Frou  (10,000),  Dondon  (12,000), 
Jean  Rabel  (9000) ;  and  to  the  east  of  Mirebalais,  Las  Caho- 
bas  (12,000).  In  the  plain  of  the  cul-de-sac  is  La  Croix 
des  Bouquets  (20,000),  and  five  or  six  miles  up  the  moun- 
tain-side, near  the  capital,  is  the  charming  summer  resort 
Petionville  (15,000).  These  figures  represent  communal 
populations. 

Although  these  towns  and  communes,  and  others  not 
here  mentioned,  do  not  always  present  the  well-regulated, 
pleasing  aspect  of  the  cities  and  towns  of  the  United  States 
or  Europe,  they  nevertheless  do  suggest  important  possi- 
bilities in  the  future. 

The  people  of  Haiti  are  almost  entirely  of  African  de- 
scent, with  a  few  of  the  mulatto  or  colored  class.  The 
comparatively  few  whites  engaged  in  business  or  diplo- 


•      THE  KEPUBLIC   OF   HAITI  283 

matic  affairs  are  transients.  The  fact  that  the  country  is  a 
black  republic,  where  emancipated  people  of  this  color  are 
trying  to  work  out  their  own  destiny,  makes  it  especially 
interesting.  It  is  estimated  that  nine  tenths  of  the  people 
are  black  and  one  tenth  colored,  and  that  the  latter  are 
gradually  more  and  more  approaching  the  black  type. 

Judged  by  the  standards  of  the  more  advanced  white 
races,  the  Haitians  are  very  backward ;  but  compared  with 
other  pui'ely  negro  countries  it  must  be  admitted  that  they 
are  far  above  their  race  in  general.  Sir  Spenser  St.  John, 
the  present  British  minister  to  Mexico,  who  for  over  twenty 
years  resided  at  Port-au-Prince,  has  described  the  Haitians 
from  tl;ie  point  of  view  of  a  well-bred  Englishman.^  He 
pictures  the  country  and  the  people  in  a  state  of  rapid 
decadence,  and  sees  no  future  for  them.  His  descriptions 
of  the  voodoo  ^  rites,  cannibalism,  and  general  social  degra- 
dation of  the  people,  are  indeed  appalling,  and  after  read- 
ing them,  one  unacquainted  with  the  history  and  ethnology 
of  the  African  races  would  conclude  that  Haiti  is  forever 
lost ;  but  his  conclusions  are  not  borne  out  by  history,  and 
the  Haitians,  instead  of  degenerating,  are,  excepting  the 
Cubans,  Porto  Eicans,  and  Barbadians,  the  only  virile  and 
advancing  natives  of  the  West  Indies. 

No  exact  details  concerning  the  vital  statistics  are  ob- 
tainable, and  all  statements  are  necessarily  estimates.  It 
is  thought  that  no  full  and  accurate  census  has  been  taken 
since  1791.  General  Jeffrad,  who  was  president  from  1859 
to  1866,  endeavored  to  enumerate  the  population,  but  went 
only  far  enough  to  establish  the  fact  that  the  footing  up 
would  show  considerably  less  than  a  million.  Lately  the 
Roman  Catholic  clergy  have  taken  a  fragmentary  census 
for  their  own  purposes.  Their  figures  show  the  present 
population  to  be  somewhat  more  than  a  million. 

1  "  Hayti ;  or,  The  Black  Republic."  By  Sir  Spenser  St.  John,  formerly  her 
Majesty's  minister  resident  and  consul-general  in  Hayti ;  now  her  Majesty's 
special  envoy  to  Mexico  (London,  1884). 

2  "  Vaudoux  "  is  the  proper  form  of  this  word,  "  voodoo  "  being  an  American 
•corruption  of  the  same. 


284  CUBA  AND   POKTO  EICO 

Undoubtedly  the  inhabitants  of  Haiti  were  reduced  nearly 
one  half  by  the  terrible  wars  of  the  revolution.  During 
the  struggle  all  of  the  whites  were  either  driven  out  of  the 
country  or  killed,  and  some  slaves  were  exported  to  Cuba 
and  the  United  States.  The  prolific  negro  race  has  re- 
couped its  losses,  however,  and  the  population  is  rapidly 
increasing.  St.  John  concludes,  after  investigating  all 
possible  sources  of  infonriation,  that  the  population  has 
probably  doubled  since  1825,  notwithstanding  the  careless- 
ness of  the  negro  mothers. 

The  colored  people  generally  reside  in  the  towns,  and  are 
a  vanishing  class.  A  marked  line  is  drawn  against  them 
by  the  blacks,  owing  to  historic  alinement  of  these  two 
classes.  In  past  political  conflicts  the  mulattos  have  been 
usually  defeated,  and  most  of  them  have  since  segregated 
in  the  eastern  or  San  Domingo  end  of  the  island.  The 
black  hates  the  mulatto,  the  mulatto  despises  the  black, 
and  the  whites  have  a  contempt  for  both.  As  a  race,  the 
mulattos  who  remain  have  been  described  as  hating  their 
fathers  and  despising  their  mothers.  In  personal  appear- 
ance the  Haitian  mulattos  are  what  might  be  expected 
from  a  mixture  of  a  plain  race  of  Europeans  with  the 
homeliest  of  Africans.  They  are  quite  different  in  type 
from  the  Spanish  mulattos  of  Cuba,  San  Domingo,  and 
Porto  Rico,  or  the  beautiful  mulattos  of  the  French 
islands.  The  women  are  rarely  good-looking  and  never 
beautiful ;  as  they  approach  the  white  type  they  have  long, 
coarse  hair,  pretty  teeth,  small  hands,  and  delicate  forms, 
but  their  voices,  noses,  skins,  and  lower  jaws  are  defective. 
A  pretty  girl  is  the  exception. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  revolution  the  half-breeds  con- 
stituted less  than  one  tenth  of  the  whole  population,  and 
the  wars  all  tended  to  increase  the  disparity  in  favor  of 
the  blacks,  who  formed  the  vast  majority.  Hence,  since  the 
white  element  has  almost  been  eliminated,  the  crossing 
necessarily  resulted  in  the  gradual  exclusion  of  the  half- 
breed  type  by  the  full-blooded  negro. 


THE  REPUBLIC  OF  HAITI  285 

In  features  the  black  Haitians  vary  greatly,  owing  to  the 
variations  between  the  African  tribes  from  which  they  are 
descended.  Some  of  the  men  are  tall,  with  fine  open 
countenances,  while  others  are  low  in  mien  and  physique. 
Eeclus  has  noted  that  if  the  complexions  are  mostly  very 
dark,  the  new  environment  has  remodeled  the  features, 
which  have  become  largely  assimilated  to  the  European 
type ;  African  features,  such  as  those  of  the  Wolof s  and 
Serers,  are  seldom  met.  Though  they  have  not  developed 
a  homogeneous  type,  as  have  the  natives  of  Jamaica,  Bar- 
bados, and  Martinique,  even  St.  John  admits  that  as  a  rule 
they  are  far  advanced  above  the  African  type.  There  are 
still  many  negroes  in  Haiti  who  were  born  in  Africa,  prin- 
cipally the  last  cargoes  of  slaves  captured  by  English 
cruisers  and  turned  loose  among  their  brethren. 

The  numerically  preponderating  and  dominant  blacks 
are  of  many  degrees  of  advancement,  ranging  from  prime- 
val Africans,  almost  unacquainted  with  the  Caucasian  race 
or  habits,  who  inhabit  the  back  districts,  especially  of  the 
southern  peninsula,  to  men  and  women  who  have  been 
highly  educated  in  Paris.  Among  these  are  some  of  pol- 
ished manners  and  cultivated  minds ;  but  even  these,  when 
they  attain  power,  are  inclined  to  prove  themselves  vision- 
ary and  less  capable  in  the  administration  of  public  affairs 
than  white  men. 

It  is  the  general  impression  that  the  female  sex  greatly 
preponderates  among  the  Haitian  negroes.  Some  estimate 
the  proportion  as  high  as  two  to  one ;  others  say  there  are 
three  women  to  one  man.  St.  John  estimates  that  the 
women  constitute  three  fifths  of  the  population.  There  is 
no  migration  to  account  for  the  disproportion  of  sexes, 
the  movement  of  population  having  been  toward,  instead 
of  away  from,  the  island.  In  colonial  times  the  males 
outnumbered  the  females,  but  the  numerous  wars  are  sup- 
posed to  have  largely  exterminated  the  former. 

The  language  of  Haiti  is  French,  which  is  spoken  and 
written  in  its  purity  by  the  educated.    Indeed,  it  is  a  say- 


286  CUBA  AND  POKTO   RICO 

ing  in  Paris  that  the  Haitians  are  the  only  foreign  people 
who  speak  French  without  an  alien  accent.  This  is  not 
surprising,  because  it  is  quite  the  rule  for  the  wealthy  and 
well-to-do  citizens  to  send  their  sons  and  daughters  to 
France  for  their  education.  This  class  is  debarred  from 
the  United  States  by  oui*  prejudice  against  their  color. 
The  lower  classes  speak  a  Creole  patois  which  almost  de- 
serves rank  as  a  separate  language,  being  to  the  French 
what  the  Jamaican  dialect  is  to  the  English.  As  in  Jamaica, 
this  peculiar  dialect  abounds  in  proverbs  and  quaint  say- 
ings. 

In  their  personal  traits  the  Haitians  are  like  the  negro  race 
wherever  found.  They  are  distinguished  for  their  boast- 
fulness — a  habit  inherited  from  both  the  French  and  the 
negro.  They  are  also  given  to  strong  drink  and  licentious- 
ness. They  pride  themselves  on  their  proficiency  in  dan- 
cing and  their  ear  for  music.  They  have  fair  military  bands 
in  the  cities,  but  throughout  the  island  the  favorite  instru- 
ment is  the  African  tom-tom.  In  the  country  the  old 
African  dances  are  still  engaged  in,  including  the  sensuous 
bamboula.  Wakes  are  held  for  the  dead,  and  burials  in  the 
country  are  of  a  very  primitive  nature.  Like  other  negroes, 
the  Haitians  have  a  curious  habit  of  talking  to  themselves. 
One  is  often  surprised  to  hear  in  the  bushes  along  the  road- 
side an  apparently  extended  conversation,  which  turns  out 
to  be  the  monologue  of  a  solitary  darky. 

The  black  man  in  his  family  relations  is  generally  kind, 
although  few  of  the  lower  orders  go  through  any  civil  or 
religious  marriage  ceremony.  In  the  interior,  polygamy 
is  common,  and  a  patriarch  may  be  frequently  seen  sitting 
at  the  door  of  a  house  surrounded  by  huts  in  which  his 
younger  wives  reside.  Though  generally  fond  of  their 
children,  they  neglect  them  to  an  extent  that  accounts 
largely  for  the  high  death-rate  among  the  young.  Toward 
the  white  man  the  black  is  usually  respectful  and  cordial. 
The  politeness  of  the  country  negro  is  remarkable,  and  you 
hear  one  ragged  fellow  addressing  another  as  "Monsieur 


THE  REPUBLIC  OF  HAITI  287 

Frere"  or  "Confrere."  The  town  negro  is  less  well-mannered 
than  the  peasant.  The  countrywomen  are  kind,  bright, 
intelligent,  with  a  natural  dignity  and  refinement  quite 
surprising  in  people  of  their  habits  and  situation.  The 
young  people  can  read  and  write,  while  several  books  of 
poetry  in  Spanish  and  one  or  two  illustrated  French  maga- 
zines are  found  in  many  of  the  better  homes. 

The  negroes  of  the  country,  especially  in  the  remote 
districts,  preserve  nearly  all  the  rites  and  superstitions  of 
their  African  ancestors,  including  dances,  music,  and 
witchcraft.  In  fact,  obiism,  that  queer  survival  of  Afri- 
can witchcraft  in  the  West  Indies,  prevails  here  in  its 
most  primitive  form.  It  is  alleged  that  it  is  here  secretly 
accompanied  by  cannibalistic  sacrifices,  which  the  strong 
arm  of  the  white  race  has  at  least  eliminated  in  the  other 
islands  and  in  the  United  States.  St.  John  has  presented 
some  terrible  pictures  of  its  prevalence  in  Haiti. 

The  conditions  which  St.  John  describes  are  not  those 
of  retrogradation,  but  merely  the  survivals  of  customs 
which  the  ancestors  of  these  people  brought  from  Africa. 
Furthermore,  others  who  have  lived  among  them  have 
stated  that  no  more  honest,  cheerful,  and  hospitable  people 
exist  than  the  Haitian  peasantry.  It  is  asserted  that  one 
could  travel  from  end  to  end  of  the  country  with  gold  coin 
clinking  in  his  pocket  at  every  step,  without  losing  a 
penny's  value  or  a  night's  free  lodging,  or  incurring  thereby 
any  personal  danger.  The  great  crimes  and  felonies,  such 
as  arson,  rape,  highway  robbery,  and  murder  for  gain,  are 
extremely  rare. 

The  Haitian  negroes  have  very  peculiar  names,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  under  the  French  occupation  no  slaves  could 
be  given  a  name  which  was  used  by  their  masters,  so  that 
the  latter  were  driven  to  curious  expedients  to  find  appel- 
lations for  their  dependents,  who  were  called  by  such 
names  as  Caesar,  Lord  Byron,  and  Je-crois-en-Dieu. 

The  negro  as  he  appears  in  the  large  commercial  towns 
is  quite  a  different  being  from  the  half -wild  peasants  of  the 


288  CUBA  AND   POETO  KICO 

country,  although  the  latter  probably  are  morally  superior 
to  the  former,  for  they  have  the  virtues  as  well  as  the  vices 
of  the  wild  races;  although  their  intercourse  with  their 
city  compatriots  has  given  them  a  sort  of  French  varnish, 
yet  they  are  merely  an  African  people  transplanted  from 
the  parent  country.  It  may  be  said  to  their  credit  that 
they  have  shown  a  wish  to  acquire  little  homes  from  their 
savings,  and  that  they  give  many  signs  of  a  desire  to  rise 
above  their  racial  debasement. 

After  studying  the  Haitian  people,  their  institutions, 
and  the  criticisms  of  others  upon  them,  it  is  our  opinion 
that  they  represent  the  most  advanced  negro  government 
in  the  world,  and  as  crude  as  they  appear  to  us,  and  as  far 
below  the  standards  of  the  Caucasian  race,  they  have  in 
the  face  of  the  bitterest  oppression,  both  from  without 
and  within,  virtually  lifted  themselves  by  their  boot-straps 
out  of  the  depths  of  African  savagery  into  at  least  a  crude 
condition  of  culture,  having  the  outward  semblance  of  civ- 
ilization. Whatever  success  they  have  attained  has  been 
solely  by  their  own  unaided  efforts.  The  Christian  world, 
which  looked  with  horror  on  the  institution  of  slavery  and 
cried  loudly  for  its  abolition,  neglected  this  self-emanci- 
pated people  when  they  most  needed  its  help  and  aid. 
Although  hardly  three  decades  have  passed  since  our 
country  was  inflamed  with  sentiments  demanding  the  abo- 
lition of  slavery,  and  eager  to  alleviate  the  condition  of  the 
freedmen,  we  have  extended  no  aid  or  sympathy  to  the 
Haitians,  who  first  lifted  the  banner  of  emancipation  on 
American  soil.  Missionaries  from  our  country  sail  past 
the  island  for  more  distant  shores ;  noble  men  and  women 
go  to  equatorial  Africa  to  enlighten  people  far  below  the 
Haitians  in  culture,  and  forces  of  intelligence  which  in 
Haiti  might  overweigh  the  delicately  balanced  conditions 
of  barbarism  and  civilization  in  favor  of  the  latter  are 
sent  to  distant  China  or  India. 

Whatever  may  be  said  against  the  Haitians,  it  should  be 
remembered  that  these  people  nearly  a  centuiy  ago  initi- 


THE  REPUBLIC   OF  HAITI  289 

ated  the  movement  which,  ending  in  Brazil  in  1889,  resulted 
in  driving  the  institution  of  slavery  from  the  western 
hemisphere. 

The  independence  of  Haiti,  accomplished  during  the 
time  when  slavery  was  still  upheld  with  all  of  its  horrors 
in  the  other  West  Indies,  appeared  to  the  old-school  plant- 
ers in  the  light  of  an  unnatural  event.  It  inspired  among 
the  slave-owners  of  aU  nationalities  a  feeling  of  horror. 
The  name  of  Haiti  was  proscribed  on  the  plantations  as  be- 
longing to  an  accursed  land,  and  even  to  this  day  the  effects 
of  this  are  so  far-reaching  that  in  our  own  country  the  name 
wrongly  signifies  all  that  is  evil.  Yet  this  black  commu- 
nity, now  enjoying  political  freedom  and  self-government, 
is  alive  and  growing,  and  may  be  counted  a  potent  factor 
in  the  ultimate  destiny  of  the  West  Indies. 

Haiti's  history  did  not  begin  until  nearly  a  century  and 
a  half  after  San  Domingo  had  been  established  by  Spain. 
In  the  early  years  of  the  seventeenth  century  many  Span- 
iards, who  had  made  the  first  skimming  of  the  natural 
resources  of  the  island,  left  it  for  the  more  tempting  fields 
of  Mexico  and  South  America.  The  bucaneers — French 
and  English— took  advantage  of  their  departui'e  and  began 
to  prey  upon  the  island.  The  French  particularly  assailed 
the  weaker  western  end,  which  was  then  largely  a  wilder- 
ness ;  they  first  established  stations,  then  plantations,  and 
finally,  in  1640,  organized  these  irregular  settlements  into 
a  colony  under  a  governor  sent  from  France.  Forty-seven 
years  later  Spain  was  forced  to  acknowledge  French  sov- 
ereignty over  the  portion  of  the  island  where  this  parasitic 
hold  had  been  obtained.  It  is  unnecessary  to  dwell  upon 
the  colonial  history  of  Haiti  previous  to  the  French  Revo- 
lution, further  than  to  say  that  it  became  what  was  at  that 
time  the  finest  colony  in  the  world.  "  Historians,"  it  has 
been  said,  "  are  never  weary  of  enumerating  the  amount 
of  its  products,  the  great  trade,  the  warehouses  filled  with 
sugar,  cotton,  coffee,  indigo,  and  cocoa ;  its  plains  covered 
with   splendid   estates;   its  hillsides  dotted  with   noble 

19 


290  CUBA  AND  PORTO  EICO 

houses ;  a  white  population,  rich,  refined,  and  enjoying  life 
as  only  the  luxurious  French  society  of  the  old  regime 
could  enjoy  it."  The  dark  spots,  then  scarcely  noticed, 
were  the  immorality  of  the  whites  and  the  ignorant  mass  of 
black  slavery.  The  plantation  slaves  were  Africans  who 
retained  every  savage  trait  of  their  native  countiy,  includ- 
ing cannibalism,  voodooism,  and  even  in  many  cases  the 
primitive  language  and  dress.  The  change  from  Africa  to 
Haiti  was  but  slight.  The  masters  whom  the  negi'oes  found 
in  the  New  World  were  but  little  better  than  those  of  their 
own  race ;  the  damp  forests  afforded  a  natural  environment 
very  similar  to  that  from  which  they  were  drawn;  they 
continued  to  live  in  African  huts  and  to  eat  African  foods. 
The  French  masters  practised,  under  a  guise  of  civilization, 
all  the  cruelties  of  the  African  kings  whom  these  people 
had  served  at  home.  Their  system  of  slavery  was  unsur- 
passed for  severity,  subtle  cruelty,  lasciviousness,  and 
ferocity.  Its  contrast  with  the  Spanish  system  in  opera- 
tion in  the  San  Domingo  half  of  the  island,  where  negro 
slavery  existed  in  a  form  robbed  of  half  of  its  terrors,  was 
marked. 

The  ancient  regime  also  produced  a  third  distinct  set  of 
people  in  Haiti.  Miscegenation,  openly  and  boastfully 
practised,  resulted  in  a  large  number  of  mulattos,  or  colored 
people.  These  became  numerically  important  with  the 
passing  years,  and  occupied  a  peculiar  position.  Although 
they  mostly  became  f  reedmen,  they  were  looked  down  upon 
by  their  white  relatives,  treated  with  hatred  and  contempt, 
and  granted  no  civil  status ;  and  they  were  hated  by  the 
pure  blacks.  Thus  society  in  Haiti  from  1700  to  1776  pre- 
sented an  outward  aspect  of  untold  prosperity,  but  inwardly 
was  composed  of  elements  which,  when  fired  by  the  Revo- 
lution in  France,  were  bound  to  clash  with  a  force  com- 
bining the  ferocity  of  the  French  revolutionists  and  the 
savagery  of  African  warfare. 

The  latent  spark  was  kindled  in  a  peculiar  way.  When 
our   American   colonies    revolted    against   England,  the 


THE  KEPUBLIC   OF  HAITI  291 

French  commanders  who  were  our  allies  enlisted  the  free 
blacks  and  mulattos  of  Haiti,  who,  according  to  the  English 
writers,  did  good  service  in  our  War  of  the  Revolution,  but 
when  they  returned  to  their  own  country  spread  a  spirit 
of  disaffection  which  no  ordinances  could  destroy.  Thus  it 
was  that  "  the  spirit  of  '76  "  kindled  the  fires  which  led  to 
the  Haitian  revolution. 

Furthermore,  in  France,  about  this  time,  there  were 
organized  societies  known  as  "  The  Friends  of  the  Blacks," 
exactly  similar  to  the  abolitionist  party  of  the  Northern 
United  States  prior  to  the  Civil  War.  These  people,  moved 
by  a  spirit  of  philanthropy,  but  ignorant  of  the  laws  of 
sociology,  increased  the  discontent  and  fanned  race  hatred 
among  the  blacks  of  Haiti.  The  whites  at  this  time,  who 
still  controlled  Haiti, — the  discontent  of  the  black  and 
colored  population,  although  apparent,  being  neither  dan- 
gerous nor  active,— precipitated  the  crisis  by  a  local  au- 
tonomist movement,  very  similar  to  the  events  which  a 
century  later  caused  the  Cuban  rebellion.  They  were  then 
governed  under  a  colonial  system,  somewhat  analogous  to 
that  of  the  Spanish  system  in  Cuba,  in  which  they  had  no 
voice,  and  they  demanded  local  self-government.  Three 
parties  were  immediately  organized:  the  white  planters, 
demanding  a  local  self-government,  constituted  the  colo- 
nial party;  the  official  classes  and  their  hangers-on,  also 
white,  stood  for  the  old  regime  as  the  loyalist  party ;  and 
the  free  blacks  and  colored  people  agitated  for  civil  rights, 
which  had  been  withheld  from  them.  No  idea  of  indepen- 
dence of  France  was  contemplated.  The  large  and  over- 
whelming mass  of  black  slaves  were  entirely  uninterested 
in  these  events.  Then  the  explosion  began.  The  planters, 
who  had  hitherto  treated  their  colored  offspring  with  con- 
tempt, now  called  upon  them  for  aid,  which  was  freely 
given,  but  afterward  rewarded  with  insult,  which  created 
a  strong  racial  hatred  between  these  two  elements.  The 
French  Assembly  in  1791  gave  the  freedmen  and  colored 
people  their  civil  rights,  and  in  all  the  subsequent  strug- 


292  C7DBA   AND   PORTO   RICO 

gles  they  continiied  loyal  to  the  French  govemment.  In 
1794  the  black  slaves,  who  had  hitherto  been  contented, 
were  given  the  full  liberty,  equality,  and  fraternity  of  the 
French  republic.  The  white  planters  meanwhile  continued 
in  insurrection.  Then  another  element  was  introduced 
into  the  strife,  which  was  ultimately  to  overpower  all  the 
others.  The  royalists  called  upon  the  black  slaves,  who 
had  formerly  been  meekly  quiescent,  to  help  them  subdue 
the  planters.  Like  bloodhounds  released  from  the  leash, 
or  a  firebrand  thi'own  into  a  heap  of  tinder,  these  savages 
rushed  into  the  fray,  fighting  after  the  manner  of  their 
forefathers,  killing,  burning,  ravishing,  and  destroying. 
Their  whole  African  nature  was  given  freest  play,  never  to 
stop  until  eventually  every  white  man  was  murdered  or 
driven  from  Haiti,  and  the  colored  class  sold  as  slaves  to 
the  Spaniards  of  San  Domingo.  In  vain  other  nations  of 
the  world  tried  to  stop  the  fray.  England  and  Spain  each 
sent  their  forces  to  subdue  the  island.  Disease  helped 
savagery,  and  the  light  of  medieval  civilization  went  out 
in  Haiti. 

We  cannot  mention  half  the  incidents  of  this  fearful 
struggle,  but  the  terrible  cruelty  and  treachery  of  the 
whites  to  the  black  and  colored  people  of  Haiti  were  hardly 
less  savage  than  the  retaliation  of  the  blacks.  The  infamous 
treatment  by  the  French  of  Toussaint  L'Ouverture,  who 
at  one  time  had  almost  reduced  these  disloyal  elements,  is 
one  of  the  darkest  pages  of  human  history.  "  And  yet  the 
conduct  of  this  black  was  so  remarkable  as  almost  to  con- 
found those  who  declare  the  negro  an  inferior  creature, 
"incapable  of  rising  to  genius.  History,  wearied  with 
dwelling  on  the  petty  passions  of  the  other  founders  of 
Haitian  independence,  may  weU  turn  to  the  one  gi'and 
figure  of  this  cruel  war."  Bom  a  slave,  he  acquired  only 
enough  education  to  read  a  little  French  and  Latin,  with- 
out mastering  the  art  of  writing.  When  the  insurrection 
broke  out  he  remained  faithful  to  his  master,  and  pre- 
vented any  destruction  on  his  estate ;  but  ultimately  find- 


THE  EEPUBLIC   OP  HAITI  293 

ing  that  he  could  not  stem  the  tide,  he  sent  his  master's 
family  for  safety  into  Cape  Haitien  and  joined  the  black 
loyalists.  Having  a  knowledge  of  simples,  he  was  first 
appointed  a  surgeon,  and  later  rose  to  leadership,  ever 
trjdng  to  du'ect  the  course  of  his  unruly  subjects  into  legit- 
imate warfare,  and  to  suppress  their  savage  instincts.  He 
protected  to  the  last  the  lives  of  the  whites,  and  was  even 
honored  by  the  English,  whose  assistance  had  been  sought 
by  France  to  subdue  the  fray.  "  When  he  once  gave  his 
word,  he  never  broke  it,"  it  was  said ;  "  and  he  never  had 
any  prejudice  of  color."  Even  St.  John  says  that  "  he  had 
a  greatness  of  mind  which  was  really  remarkable."  Roume 
described  this  negro  chief  as  a  "philosopher,  a  legislator, 
a  general,  and  a  good  citizen."  Eainsf  ord,  an  English  offi- 
cer, who  visited  the  insurgents  disguised  as  an  American, 
was  much  struck  with  Toussaint,  and  says  he  "was  con- 
strained to  admire  him  as  a  man,  a  governor,  and  a  gen- 
eral," who  "receives  a  voluntary  respect  from  every 
description  of  his  countrymen,  which  is  more  than  returned 
by  the  affability  of  his  behavior  and  the  goodness  of  his 
heart." 

It  should  be  remembered  that  this  man,  a  loyal  subject 
of  France,  was  fighting  for  peace  and  order,  and  had  it  not 
been  for  the  venality  of  the  French  themselves,  whose 
political  conditions  at  home  were  almost  as  disturbed  as 
in  Haiti,  he  would  have  restored  it.  When  he  had  almost 
finished  his  task  and  proclaimed  union  and  peace  in  the 
French  colony,  pardoning  all  those  who  had  been  led  into 
the  revolution  against  him,  keeping  his  word  to  his  ene- 
mies by  putting  into  execution  a  constitution  which  was' 
a  model  of  liberality,  Bonaparte  determined  to  reestablish 
slavery  in  Haiti,  and  sent  a  French  army  of  invasion  to 
carry  out  this  most  infamous  attempt.  Rochambeau,  who 
led  the  French  troops,  shot  every  prisoner  that  fell  into 
his  hands,  justifying  retaliation  by  the  Haitians.  He  even 
brought  to  the  siege  two  hundred  Cuban  bloodhounds,  that 
were  fed  on  negro  flesh,  it  is  said,  to  make  them  the  moi'e 


\J 


294  CUBA  AND  PORTO  MCO 

savage.  Toussaint,  ever  loyal  to  the  authority  of  his 
country,  treated  with  the  French  commander-in-chief  and 
retired  to  his  estate,  where  he  was  subsequently  arrested 
in  circumstances  of  the  gi-eatest  treachery,  bound  with 
ropes,  and  carried  prisoner  to  France.  The  indignities  to 
which  he  was  subjected  can  hardly  be  believed  as  the  acts 
of  French  officers  who  broke  their  plighted  word.  In 
France  he  was  separated  from  his  family  and  cast  into  a 
prison,  where  he  died  from  cold  and  neglect,  the  suspicion 
being  justified  that  the  close  of  his  illustrious  life  was  in- 
tentionally hastened. 

Thus  ended  the  career  of  a  man  of  whom  the  Marquis 
d'Hermonas  said  that  "  Grod  in  this  ten-estrial  globe  could 
not  commune  with  a  purer  spirit."  "  The  one  mistake  of 
his  life  appears  to  have  been  his  refusal,  when  urged  to  do 
so  by  England,  to  declare  the  independence  of  all  Haiti. 
Had  he  accepted  the  English  proposals  and  entered  into  a 
treaty  with  the  Americans,  it  is  not  likely  that  Bonaparte 
would  have  ever  attempted  an  expedition  against  him,  and 
the  history  of  Haiti  might  have  been  happier." 

With  the  exile  of  Toussaint  ended  the  influence  of  the 
white  race  in  Haiti.  A  most  fearful  epidemic  of  yellow 
fever  fell  upon  the  French  army  and  almost  annihilated  it. 
Forty  thousand  of  them  perished  in  1802-03.  The  Haitians 
saw  their  opportunity,  and  aroused  their  countrymen  to 
expel  the  weak  remnants  of  the  French  army.  The  foreign 
fleets  left  Haiti's  shores  to  engage  in  their  own  warfares. 
Rochambeau,  pushed  by  an  army  of  thirty  thousand 
blacks,  pinched  by  hunger,  and  having  no  hope  of  rein- 
forcements, surrendered  to  the  English  and  embarked  for 
Europe,  leaving  an  independent  country  to  the  victorious 
blacks. 

Thus  ended  in  1804,  after  fifteen  years  of  horrible  war- 
fare, one  of  the  darkest  chapters  in  the  history  of  the  West 
Indies,  and  colonial  Haiti  was  lost  to  civilization.  The 
Haitian  negroes  have  since  been  left  to  work  out  their  own 
destinies.    At  first  they  set  up  an  empire  after  the  Napo- 


THE  REPUBLIC   OF  HAITI  295 

leonic  example  in  France.  Then  followed  monarchies, 
constitutional  presidencies,  and  even  a  second  empire  in 
1849,  sometimes  accompanied  by  union  with  San  Domingo. 
In  1843  the  revolutionary  alliance  with  San  Domingo  was 
broken,  and  since  that  day  the  republic  of  Haiti  has  con- 
tinued, marked  by  many  revolutions,  but  gradually  becom- 
ing more  and  more  quiet. 

No  Haitian  of  intelligence  now  thinks  it  possible  to  keep 
his  country  in  isolation,  or  out  of  line  in  the  onward  march 
of  the  nations.  With  this  opinion  prevalent  and  other 
favorable  forces  at  work,  it  may  be  hoped  that  order  and 
development  will  obtain  in  Haiti.  The  tendency  of  things 
there  is  clearly  against  irregular  changes  of  government. 

The  Haitian  government  has  made  endeavors  to  increase 
the  population  by  inviting  immigration  from  abroad  of 
persons  of  African  origin,  especially  the  negroes  of  the 
United  States.  Under  the  presidency  of  G-eneral  Boyer,  in 
1824,  thousands  of  these  people  settled  in  different  parts 
of  the  country ;  many  of  them  died  from  the  climate ;  a  few, 
however,  became  prosperous,  and  many  of  their  descendants 
are  still  living,  and  have  preserved  the  love  of  the  American 
Union  and  their  knowledge  of  the  English  language. 

During  our  Civil  War  President  Jeffrad  offered  liberal 
terms  to  negro  settlers  from  the  United  States.  Their 
passages  were  to  'be  paid,  lands  placed  at  their  disposal, 
and  they  were  to  be  housed  and  cared  for  during  a  reason- 
able period,  and  to  be  exempt  from  military  service.  Freed- 
men  were  even  shipped  by  our  national  government  from 
Norfolk,  but  the  experiment  was  a  failure. 

As  a  rule,  negroes  become  attached  to  the  people  and 
customs  of  the  first  Caucasian  lands  of  their  adoption. 
Negroes  from  the  United  States,  differing  from  the  Haitians 
in  speech,  religion,  and  usages,  generally  keep  aloof  and  can- 
not attach  themselves  to  the  French  language  and  entirely 
different  habits  of  the  Haitian  blacks.  During  the  past 
few  years  a  strong  current  of  blacks  has  been  flowing  into 
Haiti  from  the  neighboring  islands,  including  Jamaica. 


'  CHAPTER  XXVI 

THE  BAHAMAS 

General  geographic  features.  Dissimilarity  to  other  West  Indian  Islands. 
Products  and  population.  Poverty  and  decadence  of  the  people. 
Varied  race  character  of  the  blacks. 

HAVINGr  described  the  Great  Antilles  except  the  Vir- 
gin Islands,  let  us  now  turn  to  the  other  islands  of 
the  West  Indies,  most  of  which  occur  along  an  immense 
semicircular  stretch,  over  a  thousand  miles  in  length,  be- 
tween eastern  Florida  and  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco. 
These  islands,  with  the  exception  of  the  Vii'gin  group,  just 
east  of  Porto  Rico,  are  entirely  different  in  their  physio- 
graphic features  and  natural  resources  from  the  Great 
Antilles,  and  in  many  cases  from  one  another. 

Before  reading  individual  descriptions  of  them,  it  is  well 
to  take  a  map  and  study  closely  their  succession  and  rela- 
tive position,  and  endeavor  to  fix  in  our  minds  a  prelimi- 
nary classification.  The  first  striking  fact  is  their  subdivi- 
sion into  two  grand  groups  lying  north  and  south  of  the 
longitude  of  the  Great  Antillean  trend.  The  mere  study 
of  the  map,  however,  fails  to  show  the  great  physical 
differences  which  separate  these  groups  still  more  dis- 
tinctly. In  fact,  they  differ  from  one  another  in  every 
aspect— geologic  structure,  vegetation,  productivity,  cli- 
mate, and  fitness  for  human  habitation. 

The  northern  group,  between  Florida  and  the  east  end  of 

296 


WATLINGS   ISLAND 


UNITED  STATES   CONSUL'S    HOUSE,  NASSAU  STREET   SCENE,   NASSAU 

BAHAMAS 


THE   BAHAMAS  297 

Santo  Domingo,  constitutes  the  Bahamas.  This  lies  entirely 
within  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  having  a  trend  parallel  with 
that  of  the  Antilles.  The  other  group,  stretching  from 
Porto  Rico  southward,  popularly  known  as  the  Lesser 
Antilles,  lies  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Caribbean,  and 
has  no  affinities  or  relations  with  the  Bahamas. 

Few  maps  give  the  same  title  to  the  southern  islands. 
By  some  they  are  called  collectively  the  Lesser  Antilles,  by 
others  the  Windward  Islands;  by  still  others  the  Carib- 
bees.  On  English  maps  the  northern  half  of  the  chain  is 
marked  the  Leeward  Islands  and  the  southern  half  the 
Windward.  For  the  present  let  us  speak  of  the  whole 
as  the  Lesser  Antilles,  reserving  for  a  later  page  their 
more  accurate  classification,  and  first  disposing  of  the 
Bahamas. 

The  Bahama  group,  which  stretches  through  a  total  dis- 
tance of  780  miles,  includes  over  690  islands  and  islets  and 
2387  rocks,  whose  total  number  can  hardly  be  less  than 
3200,  and  embraces  an  area  of  5600  square  miles.  The 
aggregate  land  surface  of  all  these  islands  is  larger  .than 
that  of  Porto  Rico.  In  aspect  the  Bahamas  are  more  like 
the  land  of  our  Floridian  coast  and  keys  than  any  of  the 
other  West  Indies,  yet  they  are  so  entii*ely  unlike  the  latter 
that  the  traveler  who,  after  visiting  them,  imagines  that 
he  has  seen  the  West  Indies  is  sadly  mistaken. 

The  Bahamas  are  not  composite  lands  like  the  Antilles, 
or  volcanic  summits  like  the  daribbees,  or  even,  of  coral 
reef -rock  origin,  as  many  believe ;  but  all  of  them,  accord- 
ing to  the  researches  of  Professor  A.  Agassiz,  are  wind- 
blown piles  of  shell  and  coral  sand, — once  much  more 
extensive  than  now,— whose  areas  have  been  restricted  by 
a  general  regional  subsidence  of  some  three  hundred  feet, 
so  that  much  of  their  former  surface  now  occurs  as  shallow 
banks  beneath  the  water.  This  sand  is  not  the  brown 
silicious  material  with  which  we  are  familiar,  but  white 
shell-sand,  the  comminuted  particles  of  shells  and  corals 
such  as  still  inhabit  the  waters  around  these  islands,  which 


298  CUBA    AND    POETO    EICO 

give  to  them  a  glaring  white  aspect  in  the  setting  of  blue 
waters  and  crystalline  atmosphere. 

The  islands  are  merely  the  exposed  tips  of  a  great  sub- 
merged ridge,  having  an  outline  and  configuration  which 
would  be  crudely  comparable  to  the  island  of  Cuba  if  the 
latter  were  so  submerged  that  its  highest  points  merely 
reached  the  surface.  In  fact,  the  trend  and  character  of 
this  bank  are  such  as  to  suggest  that  it  might  possibly  rep- 
resent one  of  the  lost  Antilles.  The  bank  is  more  of  a  pe- 
ninsula than  an  island,  projecting  as  it  does  southeastward 
from  the  narrow  submerged  shelf  of  the  Atlantic  coast— a 
kind  of  submarine  extension  of  eastern  Florida,  as  it  were. 

The  shallow  waters  around  the  Bahamas  are  beautiful. 
Some  of  the  deeper  basins,  encircled  by  reefs,  are  caHed 
sea-gardens,  from  the  lovely  growth  of  polyps  and  marine 
algsB  which  can  be  seen  beneath  the  water.  Crocodiles  and 
manatees  are  also  found  near  some  of  the  shores. 

There  are  several  groups  of  these  islands,  the  largest  of 
which,  constituting  fully  one  half  the  area,  and  situated  to 
the  -^estward,  is  known  as  the  Great  Bahama  Bank,  from 
the  vast  shallow  platform  from  which  it  rises  above  the 
water.  This  group  comprises  Andros,  the  largest  of  the 
Bahamas,  at  its  northern  extremity,  Green  Key,  New 
Providence,  Eleuthera,  Watlings,  and  Long  islands.  To 
the  east  there  are  four  smaller  groups — the  Fortune  island 
group,  the  Caicos  or  Turks  island  group,  and  (just  north 
of  Samana,  San  Domingo)  the  Silver  and  Navidad  banks. 
Great  Inagua,  situated  near  the  Windward  Passage,  oppo- 
site the  converging  ends  of  Cuba  and  Santo  Domingo,  is  a 
kind  of  outlier  to  the  south  of  the  main  chain. 

Some  of  these  islands,  like  Navidad,  Silver,  and  Mou- 
choir  banks,  barely  reach  the  surface  of  the  water ;  others 
are  similar  banks  which  project  yell  above  it ;  while  others 
still  are  compounds  of  the  two  types. 

From  the  sea  the  Bahamas  appear  as  low  stretches  of 
green  land  bordered  by  a  strip  of  white  beach  or  surf,  with 
here  and  there  a  few  villages,  built  of  American  lumber. 


THE  BAHAMAS  299 

Their  topography  consists  of  low  rounded  hills— typical 
sand-dunes,  rising  to  no  great  height,  which  are  usually 
more  rugged  and  numerous  on  the  leeward  side,  where  low 
bluffs  also  occur.  Some  of  these  bluffs  are  picturesque, 
with  great  boulders  surrounding  them  which  have  been 
cast  up  by  the  sea,  like  the  rocks  called  the  Cow  and  Bull 
on  New  Providence,  and  the  bluffs  of  Fortune  Island,  or 
with  low  cliffs  with  circular  holes  worn  through  them,  like 
the  Glass  Window  of  Eleuthera  and  the  Hole  in  the  Wall 
of  Great  Abaco. 

With  the  exception  of  Andros,  the  Bahamas  are  all  des- 
titute of  springs  or  running  waters.  Andros  has  a  few 
brooks  and  marshy  streams.  As  in  Yucatan,  the  rain-water 
collects  in  underground  reservoirs. 

The  flora  is  tropical,  but  quite  different  in  general  assem- 
blage from  that  of  the  Antilles,  being  more  closely  related 
to  that  of  the  American  coast.  A  majority  of  the  islands 
are  covered  by  a  stunted  growth,  largely  mangrove.  Only 
a  few  possess  forests ;  the  pine  of  our  southern  coast,  mixed 
with  the  tropical  mahogany,  covers  some  of  the  western 
islands. 

Like  the  Antilles,  the  Bahamas  are  almost  destitute  of 
native  mammals.  A  species  of  opossum  occurs  in  one  of 
the  western  islands  near  the  American  shore.  Bird  life  is 
abundant,  however,  and  the  adjacent  waters  are  rich  in 
turtles,  fishes,  and  beautiful  mollusks. 

Lying  as  they  do  in  the  Gulf  Stream  at  the  border  of 
the  temperate  and  torrid  zones,  the  climate  of  the  Bahamas 
is  agreeable  and  healthful,  but  subject  to  greater  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold  than  the  other  West  Indies.  In  the  win- 
ter months  from  November  to  May  the  temperature  varies 
from  60°  to  75°,  and  the  remainder  of  the  year,  constitut- 
ing the  warm  season,  from  75°  to  85°.  The  general  flat- 
ness allows  the  full  benefit  of  the  sea-breezes,  which,  with 
the  ocean  views,  may  be  considered  the  most  valuable 
features  of  these  islands. 

The  Bahamas  are  historically  interesting  because  of  their 


300  CUBA  AND   PORTO   EICO 

association  with  the  first  landfall  of  Columbus,  their  former 
relation  with  the  American  colonies,  and  the  part  they 
played  as  a  place  of  refuge  for  the  Tory  emigrants  during 
our  War  of  Independence.  The  aborigines  were  hunted 
and  enslaved  during  the  first  century  of  Spanish  conquest, 
being  especially  desired  for  the  pearl-fisheries  of  Panama, 
on  account  of  their  superior  skill  as  divers.  The  archi- 
pelago was  neglected  for  over  a  century,  but  when  the  coast 
of  Carolina  was  colonized  the  islands  were  regarded  as  its 
natural  dependency,  and  later  became  the  home  of  adven- 
turers of  all  sorts,  who  lived  by  wrecking  and  bucaneering, 
making  New  Providence  their  capital. 

The  islands  were  permanently  occupied  by  British  troops 
for  the  first  time  in  1718,  and  since  then  have  been  under 
the  flag  of  Great  Britain.  The  government,  with  its  seat 
at  Nassau,  consists  of  a  governor  and  executive  council; 
there  is  also  a  legislative  council  presided  over  by  the 
governor,  and  a  representative  assembly  of  twenty-nine 
members  elected  by  suffrage.  So  far  as  law,  order,  and 
educational  opportunities  are  concerned,  the  administra- 
tion has  the  usual  excellence  of  British  colonial  govern- 
ment, but  likewise  accompanied  by  high  taxation  and 
expenditure.  The  revenues  of  1895  amounted  to  $296,067, 
and  the  expenditures  to  $295,022.50. 

Industrially  and  commercially  the  Bahamas  are  in  straits^ 
The  soil  is  not  rich,  but  is  suitable  for  the  cultivation  of 
small  fruits,  vegetables,  pineapples,  oranges,  and  cocoanuts. 
Their  only  market,  the  United  States,  is  embargoed  by  our 
tariff  laws.  The  government  has  tried  to  encourage  the 
cultivation  of  the  sisal-fiber  plant ;  the  shipments  have  as 
yet  been  small,  however,  as  the  plantations  are  now  only 
reaching  the  productive  stage.  Abaco  is  the  chief  center 
of  the  industry.  Except  in  the  Caicos  and  Turks  groups, 
where  salt  is  found,  most  of  the  inhabitants  earn  their  liv- 
ing from  the  products  of  the  sea,  such  as  sponges,  turtles, 
shells,  pearls,  ambergris,  and  wreckage.  Sponge-fishing  is 
extensively  carried  on,  employing  many  people,  although 


THE  BAHAMAS  301 

its  total  product  does  not  aggregate  more  than  $300,000  a 
year. 

The  total  exports  amounted  to  $809,733  in  1896.  The 
imports  from  the  United  Kingdom  were  $181,608,  and  from 
the  United  States  $635,113,  out  of  a  total  of  $819,760.  So 
far  as  commerce  goes  the  Bahamas  are  an  American  pos- 
session, for  we  take  all  that  they  produce  and  sell  to  them 
most  of  what  they  consume. 

The  Bahamas  have  regular  mail  connection  with  New 
York  and  Florida,  and  in  the  winter  season  steamers 
run  to  Palm  Beach.  A  subsidized  steamer  conveys  pas- 
sengers among  the  different  islands.  Scrutton's  line  runs 
directly  to  London.  Nearly  all  the  people  own  small  sail- 
ing-vessels which  ply  between  the  islands.  There  is  cable 
connection  between  Nassau  and  Florida,  and  Nassau  and 
the  Bermudas,  and  thence  to  Halifax. 

The  population  of  the  Bahamas  is  a  decadent  one ;  there 
is  neither  immigration  nor  inducement  for  immigi*ation, 
except  for  those  who  wish  to  enjoy  the  salubrity  of  the 
climate.  Only  thirty-one  of  the  islands  were  inhabited  in 
1890,  with  a  total  population  of  fifty-four  thousand.  The 
people,  though  not  in  distress,  are  all  poor  in  worldly  goods. 
The  whites  are  few  in  number,  and  are  not  noted  for  their 
industry.  Most  of  the  Bahama  people  are  negroes,  de- 
scendants of  fonner  slaves,  and  these  are  of  many  peculiar 
types  and  kinds.  The  isolation  of  each  island  has  pre- 
served or  produced  distinct  characteristics.  Powles  has 
said  that  these  "  conchs,"  as  they  are  called,  appear  still  to 
be  divided  into  various  groups  which  retain  the  tribal 
peculiarities  of  their  African  descent,  each  tribe  annually 
electing  its  own  queen  and  recognizing  her  authority. 
Furthermore,  they  vary  in  language  according  to  that  of 
the  masters  who  introduced  them.  Most  of  them  speak 
English ;  some  have  a  decided  Scotch, dialect,  while  it  is 
alleged  that  upon  one  key  the  Irish  dialect  prevails.  Some 
of  these  negroes,  notably  the  Fortune  Islanders,  are  excel- 
lent  sailors,  and   are  eagerly  sought  by  the   American 


302  CUBA   AND   POETO   EICO 

steamers  on  account  of  the  superiority  of  their  industry  to 
that  of  the  other  West  Indian  blacks. 

The  principal  inhabited  islands  are  New  Providence, 
Abaco,  Harbor  Island,  Eleuthera,  Mayaguana,  Eagged 
Island,  Rum  Key,  Exuma,  Long  Island,  Long  Key,  and  the 
Biminis,  all  ports  of  entry,  and  the  Great  Bahama,  Crooked 
Island,  Acklin  Island,  Cat  Island  and  Watlings  Island, 
Berry  Island,  Andros  Islands,  and  Turks  and  Caicos  islands. 

New  Providence,  having  fifteen  thousand  inhabitants, 
contains  over  one  fourth  the  people  of  the  entire  group. 
On  this  island  is  situated  Nassau,  the  capital  and  only  city 
of  importance  in  the  Bahamas.  Nassau  is  a  pretty  place, 
and  is  a  favorite  resort  of  American  tourists,  who  reach  it 
from  the  Floridian  coast.  It  has  a  population  of  ten 
thousand  people.  Flowers  and  plants  and  neat  English 
houses  give  it  a  very  attractive  appearance.  Its  shops  are 
good,  and  it  has  a  large  and  well-conducted  American 
hotel,  which  is  principally  supported  by  American  visitors. 
It  was  notable  during  our  Civil  War  as  the  headquarters 
of  the  blockade-runners,  some  of  whom  made  great  for- 
tunes. 

Great  Abaco  is  one  of  the  most  thickly  peopled  of  the 
islands.  Its  population  in  1881  was  3610.  These  people 
are  mostly  whites,  and  are  interesting  to  us  in  that  they 
are  descendants  of  American  Tories,  some  of  the  best 
families  of  colonial  times.  In  order  to  preserve  the  purity 
of  the  race,  however,  they  have  always  intermarried  within 
the  same  family  circle,  and  show  a  marked  physical  degen- 
eration. 

The  Andros  Islands  are  the  largest  of  the  entire  group, 
and  represent  nearly  a  third  of  the  dry  land  of  the  archi- 
pelago. They  are,  moreover,  the  most  densely  wooded  of 
the  Bahamas. 

Harbor  Island  is  the  most  densely  populated,  having 
two  thousand  inhabitants  concentrated  in  a  space  about 
two  miles  in  extent,  who  are  descended  from  the  old  buc- 
aneers  and  have  a  communal  land  system. 


THE  BAHAMAS  303 

Eleuthera,  which  takes  its  name  from  EleutJiera  croton, 
a  plant  formerly  much  used  in  medicine,  has  but  few 
inhabitants.  Cat  Island,  so  named  from  the  domestic  ani- 
mal, which  has  run  wild,  is  about  one  hundred  and  sixty- 
five  square  miles  in  extent.  It  has  a  population  of  four 
thousand  people,  descendants  of  revolutionary  Tories. 
Watlings  Island  and  Rum  Key  are  inhabited  by  small 
communities. 

East  of  Wathngs  Island  there  is  a  long,  narrow  strait 
through  which  the  Windward  Passage  commerce  threads 
its  way.  On  the  east  of  this  is  an  archipelago  composed 
of  the  three  islands  called  Fortune,  Crooked,  and  Acklin, 
which  really  constitute  a  single  island,  being  divided  by 
shallow  channels  fordable  at  low  water.  Fortune  Island 
is  a  port  of  call,  touched  by  steamers  plying  between  New 
York  and  the  "West  Indies. 

Still  to  the  eastward  the  Only  islands  of  importance  are 
the  Turks  and  Caicos  groups,  which  are  attached  to 
Jamaica  for  administrative  purposes.  They  consist  of 
Grand  Turk,  Salt  Key,  and  a  few  uninhabited  keys.  Grand 
Turk  is  only  seven  miles  long  and  a  mile  and  a  half  wide. 
Salt  Key  is  nine  miles  long. 

Turks  Island  was  made  famous  as  a  port  of  call  by  the 
sailing-masters  who  frequented  it  in  former  years.  The 
principal  features  of  interest  and  revenue  are  the  salt- 
ponds,  aggregating  five  hundred  and  ninety-three  acres, 
each  acre  of  which  is  capable  of  yielding  about  four  thou- 
sand bushels  of  salt  per  annum,  dependent  upon  the 
weather.  A  million  and  a  half  bushels  are  annually  shipped 
to  the  United  States  and  to  Halifax,  where  it  is  principally 
used  in  the  codfish  industry.  The  total  export  is  valued 
at  $156,750.  Sponges  are  also  extensively  gathered  and 
shipped.  Here  also  is  the  home  of  the  conch  from  which 
is  obtained  the  valuable  pink  pearl.  There  is  no  water  fit 
for  human  consumption  except  rain-water,  for  which  seven 
public  tanks  have  been  constructed  on  Turks  Island. 

The  total  population  of  the  group  is  fifty-seven  hundred 


304  CUBA  AND   POKTO   EICO 

people,  about  one  half  of  whom  are  blacks,  one  thh-d  col- 
ored, and  one  sixth  white.  The  negroes  are  largely  the 
descendants  of  slaves  brought  over  by  Tory  refugees  from 
Georgia.  The  latter  constructed  substantial  stone  houses 
and  made  good  roads,  traces  of  which  still  remain.  Before 
these  came,  the  islands  were  settled  by  immigrants  from 
Bermuda  in  1670. 

Turks  and  Caicos  islands  were  separated  politically  from 
the  Bahamas  in  1848,  and  made  a  dependency  of  Jamaica, 
administered,  however,  by  a  commissioner  as  chief  execu- 
tive officer,  who  is  president  of  the  legislative  board.  The 
governor  of  Jamaica  has  supervisory  power  over  the  local 
government,  and  is  the  medium  of  communication  between 
the  commissioner  and  the  Colonial  Office.  Besides  this,  the 
legislature  of  Jamaica  can  pass  laws  applying  to  the  islands, 
and  certain  classes  of  their  judicial  cases  must  be  dealt 
with  by  the  supreme  court  of  Jamaica. 

Grand  Turk  is  the  capital,  and  the  commissioner  resides 
there.  The  town  has  been  described  as  neat,  clean,  and 
without  the  appearance  of  poverty,  although  the  inhabi- 
tants complain  of  ruin.  It  contains  several  stores,  a  good 
market-place,  a  respectable  hotel,  and  a  free  library  and 
reading-room.  The  library  is  in  a  building  erected  in 
honor  of  her  Majesty's  jubilee. 

The  revenues  are  derived  almost  entirely  from  import 
duties,  the  only  direct  taxes  being  one  on  dogs.  A  royalty 
is  paid  on  the  shipment  of  salt. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

THE  LESSER  ANTILLES 

Natural  beauty  of  the  islands.     Distribution  among  many  governments. 
Differentiation  into  four  types. 

IET  US  now  examine  the  chain  of  islands  which  sweeps 
J  in  a  gentle  curve  from  the  eastern  end  of  Porto  Eico 
around  the  Caribbean  to  the  northern  coast  of  South  Amer- 
ica— the  most  beautiful  and  ideal  of  the  tropical  lands, 
many  of  them  veritable  fairy  islands,  where  the  magic  hand 
of  nature  has  produced  the  most  esthetic  and  beautiful 
products  of  her  handiwork,  even  if  ruthless  man  has  done 
much  to  despoil  them. 

The  beauties  of  the  Great  Antilles  and  the  charms  of  all 
tropical  lands  about  which  poets  have  written  fade  before 
these.  Their  histories  have  been  as  broken  and  disturbed 
as  their  topography,  and  no  less  turbid  than  the  wind- 
driven  waves  of  the  Atlantic  which  beat  against  their  wind- 
ward shores,  and  as  cruel  as  the  hurricanes,  earthquakes, 
and  volcanic  outbursts  which  from  time  to  time  have  de- 
stroyed the  works  of  man.  Pirates  and  bucaneers  have 
preyed  upon  their  civilization,  and  great  nations  fighting 
for  these  gems  of  the  sea  have  successively  seized  them  so 
often  that  each  has  had  a  history  more  complicated  than 
that  which  marks  our  national  existence.  Here,  too,  the 
institution  of  African  slavery  was  introduced,  to  grow  until 
the  Caucasian  races  were  gradually  crowded  out,  while  each 
island  of  importance  has  successively  become  gi'eat  in 

20  305 


306  CUBA  AND   POKTO   BICO 

wealth  from  sugar-culture,  and  finally  impoverished  by  the 
same  industry,  until  all  now  present  pitiful  spectacles  of 
decaying  civilization,  these  fair  lands  being  gradually 
abandoned  to  the  erstwhile  African  bondmen. 

Here  are  remarkable  mixtures  and  contrasts  of  political 
condition,  and  economic  conditions  especially  interesting 
in  these  days  when  the  world  is  attempting  similarly  to 
subdivide  the  Orient. 

Although  the  largest  of  these  islands  hardly  exceeds  in 
area  an  average  American  county,  each  assumes  the  indi- 
viduality and  political  importance  of  an  independent 
empire.  By  travelers  sailing  among  them  they  are  com- 
monly spoken  of  as  the  French,  English,  Dutch,  Danish, 
or  Spanish  islands.  The  British  possessions  are  primarily 
segregated  at  the  ends  of  the  chain,  constituting  several 
distinct  colonial  governments,  especially  the  Leeward 
Islands  to  the  north  and  the  Windward  Islands  to  the 
south.  Besides  these  the  former  French  islands  of  Do- 
minica and  St.  Lucia,  near  the  center  of  the  chain,  are  im- 
portant British  possessions. 

The  French  group  includes  the  two  largest  islands  of 
the  chain,  Guadeloupe  and  Martinique ;  with  these,  how- 
ever, are  Dominica  and  St.  Lucia,  which  passed  into  British 
control  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  although 
the  French  language  continues  to  be  that  of  the  common 
people. 

The  Dutch  possessions  are  islands  near  the  northern 
end,  attached,  for  administrative  purposes,  to  Curasao,  on 
the  other  side  of  the  Caribbean.  The  two  Danish  islands 
are  also  small  affairs  near  the  northern  end  of  the  group, 
almost  abandoned  by  the  country  that  owns  them. 

The  historic  interest  of  these  islands  is  great.  They 
have  been  in  previous  centuries  the  chief  battle-ground  of 
European  nations  in  their  attempts  to  gain  supremacy  in 
the  New  World.  The  conflicts  between  Frenchman,  Span- 
iard, Dane,  and  Hollander  are  in  themselves  enough  to  fill 
many  volumes,  while  here  the  bucaneers  flourished  beyond 


THE  LESSER  ANTILLES  307 

the  wildest  fancy  of  those  who  seek  pleasure  in  the  reading 
of  piratic  atrocities.  Some  of  these  islands,  like  Barbados 
and  the  Bahamas,  are  interesting  to  the  student  of  early 
American  colonial  history  because  of  the  close  blood- 
relationship  of  their  early  settlers  with  those  of  our  own 
country,  as  well  as  of  a  similarity  in  colonial  institutions. 
The  student  of  slavery  and  the  ethnology  of  the  black 
race  will  also  find  in  these  islands  a  fruitful  and  interest- 
ing field.  The  student  of  political  economy  will  find 
here  instructive  lessons  growing  out  of  their  dependence 
upon  the  single  industry  of  sugar,  while  the  student  of 
politics  will  find  the  administration  of  the  various  colonial 
governments  a  subject  unique  in  interest. 

Sugar  is  everywhere  the  principal  subject  of  conversa- 
tion and  Tnterest7  One  is  astounded  by  the  apparently 
unbreakable  fetters  with  which  its  culture  has  bound  the 
inhabitants.  The  dependence  of  the  Indian  of  the  North 
American  plain  upon  the  buffalo,  or  of  the  Eskimo  upon 
the  seal  and  walrus,  was  no  greater  than  that  of  these 
people  upon  sugar.  The  rise  and  fall  in  its  price,  the  revo- 
lution of  methods  of  its  extraction  from  the  cane,  or  of  its 
refinement,  have  affected  their  whole  lives,  at  one  time 
enriching  them  and  at  others  reducing  them  to  the  most 
pitiful  poverty. 

Viewed  from  the  deck  of  the  passing  steamer,  all  the 
Lesser  Antilles  are  beautiful  beyond  description.  Rising 
as  they  mostly  do  in  wooded  summits  from  the  azure  sea, 
they  appear  to  be  the  acme  of  all  that  is  picturesque,  lovely, 
and  restful.  Beautiful  as  these  islands  are  in  nature,  es- 
pecially in  perspective,  their  charm  is  diminished  when 
the  traveler  steps  on  shore  and  comes  in  contact  with  the 
poverty  of  the  inha*bitants.  This  does  not  impress  one  by 
any  outward  aspect  of  actual  want  and  suffering,  but  by 
the  general  appearance  of  decay.  Everywhere  one  sees  in 
the  well- constructed  buildings  and  plantations,  once  in- 
habited by  the  wealthy  and  hospitable  Creoles,  reminders 
of  the  former  conditions  of  prosperity ;  yet  these  no  longer 


308  CUBA  AND   POKTO  KICO 

exhibit  the  signs  of  wealth  which  made  the  islands  famous. 
By  their  owners  the  traveler  will  be  treated  with  hospital- 
ity and  kindness,  the  people  always  welcoming  an  intelli- 
gent stranger ;  but  the  latter  can  have  only  a  feeling  of  pity 
as  he  sees  their  struggles  against  an  inevitable  fate,  while 
they  endeavor  to  maintain  the  outward  semblance  and 
graces  of  their  former  lavish  hospitality.  The  hotel  ac- 
commodations, at  least,  have  the  merit  of  cleanliness,  and 
the  food  is  the  best  that  the  country  affords. 

Before  proceeding  to  describe  the  individual  islands,  it 
is  well  to  consult  the  map  again ;  for  the  Lesser  Antilles 
are  of  at  least  four  distinct  types,  each  differing  from  the 
others  in  physical  aspects,  geologic  origin,  and  industrial 
possibilities.  These  groups  may  be  termed  the  Virgin,  the 
Caribbee,  the  South  American,  and  the  Barbadian,  each 
of  which  will  now  be  described  in  turn. 


CHAPTEE  XXVIII 

THE  VERGIN  ISLANDS  AND  ST.  CROIX 

Their  Antillean  character  and  position.  Geolo^cal  character.  Various 
kinds  of  government  St.  Thomas.  St.  John.  Virgin  Gorda. 
Anegada.     St  Croix. 

AHYDROGEAPHIC  chart  of  the  West  Indies,  such  as 
sailors  use,  shows  a  long,  shallow  bank,  hardly  one 
hundred  fathoms  deep,  extending  eastward  from  the  end 
of  Porto  Rico  like  a  crescent  curving  to  the  northward,  from 
which  rise  numerous  small  islands  of  the  Virgin  group. 
This  bank  is  the  eastward  continuation  of  the  same  shoal 
or  platform  that  surrounds  all  the  Great  Antilles,  and  the 
islands  are  Antillean  in  their  structure  and  origin,  and  are 
the  summits  of  the  submerged  eastern  end  of  the  Antillean 
mountain  chain.  On  the  south  and  east  this  bank  is 
terminated  by  the  Anegada  Passage,  which  separates  the 
Virgins  from  the  Caribbean  chain  by  a  narrow  marine  strait 
nearly  three  thousand  fathoms  deep. 

The  Virgin  Islands  were  discovered  by  Columbus  on  St. 
Ursula's  day,  and  so  named  by  him  because  they  extended 
in  a  long  procession  like  that  of  the  eleven  thousand  vir- 
gins of  the  Christian  legend.  Most  of  the  islands  are 
small,  and  some  of  them  precipitous  and  hardly  habitable. 
Proceeding  eastward  from  Porto  Rico,  the  largest  of  them 
are  Crab  Island,  Culebra,  St.  Thomas,  St.  John,  Tortola, 
Virgin  Gorda,  and  Anegada.  Besides  these  there  are  more 
than  fifty  smaller  islands  or  keys— Scrub  Island,  Beef 

309 


310  CUBA  AND  PORTO   RICO 

Island,  Old  Jerusalem,  Round  Rock,  Ginger,  Coopers,  Salt, 
Peters,  Norman  Islands,  etc. 

They  are  all  mountainous,  projecting  above  the  water 
like  tips  of  submerged  peaks,  which  they  really  are.  They 
are  very  rugged,  and  are  beautiful  when  viewed  from  the 
sea.  The  upper  outline  of  hills  of  the  larger  islands,  with 
its  multitudinous  little  coves  and  dry  gullies,  reminded 
Kingsley  of  the  Auvergne  Mountains.  "  Their  water-line 
has  been  exposed  to  the  gnawing  of  the  sea  at  the  present 
level,  and  everywhere  the  cliffs  are  freshly  broken,  toppling 
down  in  dust  and  boulders,  and  leaving  detached  stacks 
and  skerries.  Most  beautiful  meanwhile  are  the  winding 
channels  of  blue  water,  like  landlocked  lakes,  which  part 
the  Virgins  from  each  other;  and  beautiful  the  white 
triangular  sails  of  the  canoe-rigged  craft  which  beat  up 
and  down  them  through  strong  currents  and  cockling  seas. 
The  clear  air,  the  stiU  soft  outline,  the  rich  yet  delicate 
coloring,  stir  up  a  sense  of  purity  and  freshness,  and  peace 
and  cheerfulness,  such  as  is  stirred  up  by  certain  views  of 
the  Mediterranean  and  its  shores." 

The  total  area  of  aU  the  islands  hardly  aggregates  two 
hundred  square  miles,  the  largest  of  them,  St.  Thomas, 
possessing  only  thirty-seven  square  miles.  The  current 
impression  that  these  islands,  as  a  whole,  are  either  of  vol- 
canic or  coral-reef  origin,  is  a  mistake.  Traces  of  marine 
volcanism  are  less  apparent  than  in  New  England,  while 
the  coral  rocks  are  only  an  attenuated  fringe  added  in 
recent  geologic  time.  They  are  all  of  the  same  general 
geologic  composition  as  the  Great  Antilles,  consisting  of  a 
foundation  of  rocks  of  suspected  Paleozoic  origin,  covered 
by  gi*eat  masses  of  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  conglomerate 
and  clay,  derived  from  the  now  vanished  geologic  Atlantis, 
which  in  turn  are  veneered  by  the  mantle  of  oceanic  chalky- 
white  limestones,  and  these  fringed  by  a  border  of  coral- 
reef  rock.  Penetrating  the  older  rocks  are  dikes  of  ancient 
volcanic  material. 

The  smaller  islets  are  marked  by  stretches  of  coral  and 


THE  VIKGIN   ISLANDS   AND   ST.  CROIX  311 

shell-sand  overgrown  by  cocoloba  and  cactus,  largely  prickly- 
pear.  They  are  all  more  or  less  densely  covered  by  vege- 
tation similar  to  that  of  all  the  Lesser  Antilles.  The  trees 
on  the  windward  sides  are  rough  and  shaggy,  and  are  bent 
downward  against  the  land  by  the  wind.  On  the  leeward 
or  sheltered  sides,  palms,  trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers  grow  in 
profusion,  while  aloes,  cacti,  and  thorny  shrubs  occur  in 
the  more  arid  spots. 

Even  this  small  group  of  islands  is  divided  among  vari- 
ous nationalities,  much  to  their  detriment.  Crab  and  Cule- 
bra,  which  have  already  been  described  under  the  head  of 
Porto  Eico,  are  Spanish.  The  Danes  own  the  islands  of 
St.  Thomas  and  St.  John.  Anegada,  Virgin  Gorda,  Tor- 
tola,  and  a  number  of  smaller  islets  belong  to  Great  Britain. 

The  English  Virgins  constitute  a  crown  colony  of  Great 
Britain,  and  are  ruled  by  a  commissioner  who  is  responsi- 
ble to  the  governor  of  the  Leeward  Islands  colony,  which 
has  its  capital  at  Antigua.  They  have  a  total  area  of  only 
ninety-three  square  miles  and  a  decaying  population,  which 
numbered  8506  in  1881,  and  8340  in  1891.  Their  inhabi- 
tants are  what  Great  Britain  graciously  terms  peasant 
proprietors — negroes  supporting  themselves  by  the  cultiva- 
tion of  small  crops  of  yams  and  other  foods  upon  which 
the  white  man  could  not  live,  and  by  fishing. 

In  all  the  islands  the  majority  of  the  population  is  com- 
posed of  negi'oes,  above  whom  are  the  white  colonial  ofii- 
cials  of  the  government,  who  constitute  a  kind  of  local 
aristocracy.  The  negroes,  as  a  rule,  are  thoroughly  con- 
tent and  orderly,  being  allowed  a  sufficient  degree  of 
democracy  in  the  local  government  to  keep  them  loyal. 
Besides  these  two  classes  there  are  a  few  white  creole 
planters,  the  remnants  of  a  vanishing  stock  which  was  once 
the  chief  element  of  the  population,  but  has  gradually 
migrated  to  more  prosperous  lands,  leaving  behind  weak 
and  impoverished  descendants — excellent  people,  who  are 
to  be  pitied. 

These  small  islands  are  now  unimportant.    The  only 


312  CUBA  AND   POKTO   EICO 

one  which  is  at  all  conspicuous  is  St.  Thomas,  which  was 
formerly  the  commercial  metropolis  of  the  West  Indies,  and 
which  still  ranks  next,  among  the  Lesser  Antilles,  to 
Bridgetown,  Barbados,  and  Port  of  Spain,  Trinidad.  Its 
capital,  which  all  the  world  calls  St.  Thomas,  is  officially- 
known  as  Charlotte  Amalia.  It  has  a  population  of  over 
ten  thousand,  and  is  the  seat  of  government  of  the  Danish 
West  Indian  Islands. 

St.  Thomas  is  built  on  three  hills  running  in  a  parallel 
line  on  the  northern  or  inner  extremity  of  the  bay,  with 
still  higher  hills  beyond.  The  many- colored  houses  and 
the  vegetation  make  a  very  pretty  picture,  especially  when 
viewed  from  the  sea.  Kingsley  described  the  town  as  "  a  col- 
lection of  scarlet  and  purple  roofs  piled  up  among  orange- 
trees,  at  the  foot  of  hills  some  eight  hundred  feet  high ;  a 
veritable  Dutch  oven  for  cooking  fever  in,  with  as  veritable 
a  dripping-pan  for  the  poison  when  concocted  in  the  tide- 
less  basin  below  the  town,  as  ever  man  invented.  The 
beach  of  St.  Thomas  is  lined  by  the  usual  tropical  fringe 
of  cocoanut-trees,  though  here  they  look  more  sad  and 
shabby  than  elsewhere.  Above  these,  on  the  cliffs,  are 
taU  aloes,  gray-blue  cerei  like  huge  branching  candelabra, 
and  bushes,  the  foliage  of  which  is  utterly  unlike  anything 
of  the  temperate  climes,  while  still  higher  the  bright  deep 
green  of  patches  of  guinea-grass  and  a  few  fruit-trees  may 
be  seen  around  some  island  cottage." 

The  city  is  lighted  with  gas,  possesses  a  theater,  two 
club-houses,  and  several  hotels,  as  well  as  a  slip  on  which 
small  vessels  can  be  repaired.  The  principal  street  follows 
the  shore-line ;  behind  it  are  tiers  of  houses  covering  the 
slopes  of  the  hill  which  rises  from  the  harbor.  The  high- 
est point  of  the  island,  behind  the  city,  is  1560  feet,  and  it 
affords  a  beautiful  view  of  the  surrounding  waters,  with 
their  many  islands. 

The  harbor  is  a  nearly  circular  basin  on  the  south  side, 
easy  of  access  and  sheltered  from  the  trade-winds.  It  has 
been  visited  by  terrible  hurricanes,  especially  in  1819,  1837^ 


THE  VIEGIN   ISLANDS   AND   ST.  CKOIX  313 

and  1867.  For  the  accommodation  of  larger  ships  there  is 
a  floating  dock  belonging  to  the  Royal  Mail  Steamship  Com- 
pany, which  is  much  resorted  to  for  the  docking  of  steamers. 
The  same  company  has  also  a  large  stock  of  coal,  and  a 
factory  fitted  up  with  the  necessary  appliances  for  keep- 
ing its  fleet  in  repair.  The  Hamburg- American  Packet 
Company  makes  St.  Thomas  its  West  India  headquarters 
and  coaling-station,  and  many  American  and  European 
steamers  stop  there.  It  is  still  the  terminus  of  the  north- 
ern route  of  the  Royal  Mail  auxiliary  steamers,  which 
branch  out  in  every  direction  from  Barbados.  Steamers 
also  run  at  frequent  intervals  from  St.  Thomas  to  Porto 
Rico,  thirty- eight  miles  to  the  westward;  also  to  San 
Domingo  and  Haiti.  The  island  is  in  telegraphic  com- 
munication with  Europe  and  the  principal  islands  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  is  the  headquarters  of  the  West  India 
and  Panama  Telegraph  Company,  which  connects  with  the 
United  States. 

Nearly  every  language  is  spoken  in  St.  Thomas,  English 
predominating.  The  official  language  is  Danish,  but 
Spanish,  Dutch,  and  French  are  also  spoken.  TroUope 
describes  St.  Thomas  as  a  "  niggery,  Hispano,  Dano,  Yan- 
kee Doodle  sort  of  place,  with  a  general  flavor  of  sherry- 
cobbler." 

St.  Thomas  has  been  declining  for  many  years,  for  vari- 
ous reasons.  The  supplanting  of  sailing-ships  by  steamers 
was  the  first  great  blow ;  then  the  construction  of  cables 
was  detrimei\tal  to  the  business  of  the  place  as  an  inter- 
mediary port.  Between  1870  and  1880  trade  took  wings, 
the  old  commercial  importance  of  the  island  disappeared, 
and  Denmark  tried  to  sell  it  to  the  United  States,  offering 
it  and  St.  John  for  $4,750,000.  The  inhabitants,  sharing 
the  universal  desire  of  the  West  Indian  people  for  annexa- 
tion to  the  United  States,  gave  their  unanimous  consent 
to  the  arrangement,  but  our  government  declined  to  ratify 
the  purchase.  As  a  final  blow,  the  Royal  Mail  Steamship 
Company,  the  great  English  distributing  line,  which  is  so 


314  CUBA   AND   PORTO   EIOO 

important  a  factor  iu  the  "West  Indies,  removed  its  head- 
quarters to  Barbados.  It  is  estimated  that  this  removal 
caused  a  loss  of  many  thousand  pounds  a  year  to  the 
island. 

The  production  of  sugar  in  St.  Thomas  has  been  falling 
off  since  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  1848,  and  it  is  here  that 
the  traveler,  proceeding  southward  through  the  Caribbee 
Islands,  sees  upon  landing  those  ever-present  signs  of 
natural  decay,  the  abandoned  sugar-houses  and  -mills, 
though  nature  conceals  the  old  cane-fields  by  rapidly 
spreading  over  them  her  mantle  of  tropical  vegetation. 
The  cultivation  of  aloes  and  fibrous  plants  is  being  tried, 
but  not  with  any  particular  prospect  of  success.  There 
are  also  plantations  of  divi-divi  trees  and  the  usual  tropi- 
cal fruits. 

The  healthf  ulness  of  the  place  has  been  greatly  improved 
of  late  years  by  cutting  a  channel  which  gives  another 
outlet  from  its  harbor  to  the  sea,  thereby  creating  currents 
which  remove  the  filth,  an  experiment  that  suggests  the 
possibilities  of  Havana  in  the  same  line. 

St.  John,  which  also  belongs  to  the  Danes,  lies  almost 
within  gunshot  of  St.  Thomas,  to  the  east,  and  is  very 
similar  to  the  latter  in  general  aspects ;  but  as  it  is  away 
from  the  paths  of  ocean  trade,  it  is  obliged  to  live  upon  its 
own  meager  internal  resources.  It  has  a  port  called  Coral 
Bay,  which  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  best  harbors  of  refuge 
in  the  Antilles.  The  capital  of  the  island  is  an  obscure 
village  on  the  northern  side. 

Tortola  succeeds  St.  John  to  the  northeast.  It  is  trav- 
ersed by  a  central  ridge  which  culminates  in  a  peak 
eighteen  hundred  feet  high.  It  is  the  largest  of  the  British 
Virgins,  and  presents  a  very  rocky  and  precipitous  configu- 
ration. The  absence  of  forests  on  the  mountains  contributes 
to  its  rugged  appearance.  The  island  is  eighteen  miles 
from  east  to  west,  and  seven  from  north  to  south.  It  is 
very  poorly  watered,  and  abounds  in  waste  lands  and 
pasturage.    The  soil  is  not  good  enough  for  sugar,  though 


THE  VIRGIN  ISLANDS  AND   ST.  CKOIX  315 

cane  has  been  grown  there.  This  island  was  a  great 
stronghold  of  the  bucaneers,  but  afterward  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  peaceful  Quakers,  who  freed  the  slaves  and 
made  them  grants  of  land.  The  emancipated  negroes  then 
deserted  the  island,  and  many  of  the  impoverished  whites 
quickly  followed  them,  so  that  the  population  fell  from 
eleven  thousand  to  four  thousand.  Road  Town,  on  the 
south  side,  is  the  capital  of  the  English  Virgin  Islands 
Presidency. 

Vii-gin  Gorda,  or  Spanish  Town  Island,  also  British,  is 
nearly  eight  miles  long,  of  irregular  shape,  and  very  nar- 
row at  both  ends.  It  contains  fifty-two  thousand  acres, 
and  has  a  rocky  coast ;  it  is  arid,  almost  uninhabited,  and 
nearly  surrounded  by  dangerous  reefs.  Its  former  con- 
siderable plantations  are  now  largely  abandoned. 

Extending  northward  from  Virgin  Gorda  are  a  number 
of  small,  uninhabited,  rocky  islets,  which  constitute  a  men- 
ace to  navigation.  Anegada,  or  Drown  Island,  the  most 
northeasterly  of  the  group,  about  twelve  miles  long  and 
two  miles  wide,  is  surrounded  by  the  famous  Horseshoe 
Eeef.  The  island  is  low,  and  the  sea  often  breaks  over  it. 
The  few  inhabitants  are  principally  engaged  in  raising 
goats,  sheep,  and  cattle.  The  revenue  of  the  island  is  very 
small,  and  the  trade  is  almost  exclusively  with  St.  Thomas 
and  St.  Croix. 

It  has  been  said  that  as  a  great  work  of  nature  the  Vir- 
gin Islands  seem  full  of  intelligent  design ;  but  as  cultivable 
lands  they  do  not,  in  their  present  condition,  show  that 
much  success  has  attended  the  efforts  of  man.  The  white 
men  who  formerly  inhabited  them  are  rapidly  leaving,  and 
the  blacks  are  following  them,  though  more  slowly. 

St.  Croix,  or  Santa  Cruz,  lies  to  the  southeast  of  Porto 
Rico,  and  due  south  of  the  Virgin  Islands,  isolated  from 
the  other  islands,  but  more  Antillean  than  Caribbean  in  its 
geognostic  aspects.  Its  area  is  seventy-four  square  miles. 
It  has  a  high  and  sharp  configuration,  with  deep  cliffs 
near  the  shore  and  many  low  hills  in  the  interior,  all  cov- 


316  CUBA  AND   PORTO   RICO 

ered  with  beautiful  vegetation.  Hearn  has  told  of  the 
"  wonderful  variation  of  foliage  color  that  meets  the  eye." 
"Gold-greens,  sap-greens,  bluish  and  metallic  greens  of 
many  tints,  reddish  greens,  yellowish  greens.  The  cane- 
fields  are  broad  sheets  of  beautiful  gold-green,  and  nearly 
as  bright  are  the  masses  of  pomme-cannelle  frondescence, 
the  groves  of  lemon  and  orange ;  while  tamarinds  and  ma- 
hoganies are  heavily  somber.  Everywhere  palm-crests 
soar  above  the  wood-lines  and  tremble  with  a  metallic 
shimmering  in  the  blue  light." 

The  island  is  Denmark's  largest  American  possession, 
but  the  nineteen  thousand  inhabitants,  mostly  blacks, 
speak  English,  and  give  no  signs  of  their  nationality  beyond 
a  little  garrison  and  its  flag. 

There  are  many  magnificent  drives  through  avenues 
of  cocoa-palms,  tamarind- trees,  and  ceibas.  Frangipani, 
bananas,  cacti,  and  jasmine  are  cultivated  everywhere. 
The  sugar- planters  have  endeavored  to  live  by  adopting 
new  methods  and  machinery,  and  are  better  off  than  those 
of  the  English  islands;  but  there  are  many  abandoned 
plantations  and  buildings  going  to  decay.  Several  New 
England  ship-captains  have  become  planters  on  the  island. 

The  temperature  ranges  from  66°  to  82°.  The  lower 
temperature  is  considered  exceedingly  cold  by  the  inhabi- 
tants, and  is  usually  the  southern  fringe  of  the  extreme  cold 
waves  which  occasionally  sweep  the  eastern  United  States. 

There  are  two  towns,  Frederiksted  and  Christiansted, 
which  are  generally  called  West  End  and  Basse  End  re- 
spectively. Frederiksted,  when  viewed  from  the  sea, 
looks  like  a  beautiful  Spanish  town,  with  Romanesque 
piazzas,  churches,  and  many-arched  buildings  peeping 
through  breaks  in  the  breadfruit-,  mango-,  tamarind-,  and 
palm-trees ;  but  on  entering  the  streets  you  find  yourself 
in  a  crumbling  town  with  dilapidated,  two- story  buildings, 
from  which  the  stucco  or  paint  is  falling.  The  fissures  in 
the  walls  and  the  tumbling  roofs  may  be  largely  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  city  was  sacked  by  the  negroes,  who  revolted 


THE   VIRGIN   ISLANDS   AND   ST.  CEOIX  317 

in  1878.  A  broad  paved  square  is  the  market-place,  where 
the  darkies  stand  or  squat  upon  the  ground,  with  their 
wares  piled  at  their  feet.  The  city  is  full  of  short,  thick- 
set women  carrying  bundles  upon  their  heads  and  wearing 
bright  cottonade  stuffs,  chatting  loudly  in  an  English 
jargon. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 

THE  CAEIBBEE  ISLANDS 

Classification  into  volcanic  and  calcareous  subgroups.  The  Anguillan 
subgroup.  Sombrero.  AnguiUa.  St.  Barts.  St.  Martin.  Bar- 
buda.    Antigua. 

STRETCHING  like  the  piers  of  a  bridge  across  the 
entrance  to  the  Caribbean  Sea,  from  the  Anegada 
Passage  to  Trinidad,  is  a  chain  of  beautiful  lands  which 
may  be  called  the  Caribbee  Islands.  They  rise  from  a 
narrow  submarine  bank,  like  the  Antilles,  but  have  a  north- 
and-south  trend,  directly  at  right  angles  to  that  of  the 
latter,  and  separated  therefrom  by  the  deep  Anegada  Pas- 
sage, each  chain  probably  representing  the  survival  of 
what  were  great  islands  in  former  geologic  times. 

Primarily  the  Caribbees  are  composed  of  a  long  chain  of 
old  volcanic  islands,  upon  the  summits  of  some  of  which 
the  volcanic  fires  are  still  somnolent,  bordered  on  the 
windward  or  Atlantic  side  of  the  north  end  of  the  quad- 
rant by  great  banks  of  white  calcareous  rocks  which  have 
been  elevated  from  the  sea  as  a  kind  of  shelf  or  appendage 
to  the  main  volcanic  chain.  The  main  chain  of  islands 
will  be  caUed  the  Caribbees,  and  the  calcareous  outliers  the 
Anguillan  subgroup. 

These  calcareous  islands  occur  in  parallel  alinement  along 
the  northeast  side  of  the  main  Caribbean  chain,  extending 
from  Sombrero  to  Maria  Galante  inclusive.  They  consist 
of  the  islands   of   Sombrero,  Anguilla,  St.  Bartholomew, 

318 


THE   CAETBBEE   ISLANDS  319 

St.  Martin,  Barbuda,  Antigua  (in  part),  the  G-rande-Terre 
of  Guadeloupe,  and  Maria  Galante.  Inasmuch  as  these 
are  of  secondary  importance  to  the  main  chain,  they  will 
be  but  briefly  discussed. 

Sombrero,  the  most  northern  of  the  islands,  is  so  named 
because  at  a  distance  it  looks  like  a  grayish  hat  floating  on 
the  sea.  It  is  a  small  and  barren  mass  of  calcareous  rock, 
— old  beach  debris  elevated  into  land, — and  was  considered 
of  no  value  until  Americans  developed  extensive  phosphate 
deposits  upon  it,  which  are  now  nearly  exhausted.  Near 
by  is  a  cluster  of  rocks  called  the  Dogs,  from  their  resem- 
blance to  a  pack  of  hounds  in  full  chase  over  the  waves. 

Anguilla  is  fourteen  miles  long  and  three  miles  broad. 
It  is  a  long,  low,  treeless,  and  unfruitful  area.  Of  its 
population  of  twenty-five  hundred  less  than  one  hundred 
are  white.  Several  small  outlying  islands  are  associated 
with  Anguilla  in  forming  a  British  colony,  which  is  under 
the  general  government  of  St.  Kitts.  Pasturage  is  the 
principal  resource.  The  people  raise  small  ponies  that 
graze  on  the  salt-grass  along  the  beach.  Some  phosphate 
of  lime,  salt,  a  little  tobacco,  corn,  and  cattle  are  produced. 

St.  Bartholomew,  familiarly  called  St.  Barts,  is  on  the 
southern  extremity  of  a  bank  from  which  rise  also  AnguiUa 
and  St.  Martin.  It  is  a  narrow  island,  only  eight  square 
miles  in  area,  the  whole  surface  of  which  is  mountainous, 
culminating  in  a  limestone  hill  one  thousand  feet  high. 
The  place  has  no  fresh  water,  although  many  brackish 
lagoons  occur  along  the  coast.  The  geological  formations 
of  the  island,  except  the  fringe  of  recent  rocks,  are  mostly 
old  Tertiary  limestones.  The  surface  is  a  very  stony  soil 
composed  of  rock  fragments  and  boulders.  The  mountain 
masses  contain  older  igneous  rocks— a  kind  of  syenitic 
porphyry ;  conglomerates  and  breccias  occur  in  number- 
less varieties. 

The  island  is  an  administrative  dependency  of  Guade- 
loupe. The  capital  is  Fort  Gustave ;  the  people,  mainly  of 
French  descent,  speak  English.     It  was  originally  settled 


320  CUBA  AND  PORTO  RICO 

by  the  French,  who  held  possession  until  1784,  when  it 
was  traded  to  Sweden ;  but  in  1878,  France  purchased  it 
back. 

St.  Martin,  thirty-eight  square  miles  in  area,  is  almost 
triangular  in  outline  and  composed  of  many  lofty  conical 
hills,  culminating  on  the  north  side  in  Paradise  Peak,  1920 
feet  high,  while  other  peaks  follow  to  the  south.  The  west 
side  is  marked  by  stretches  of  a  low-lying  peninsula  known 
as  Basse-Terre.  Along  the  shores  are  many  large  lagoons, 
and  in  the  interior  several  rivulets  and  permanent  springs. 
It  is  diversified  by  lofty  mountains  and  broad  plains.  On 
the  lower  slopes  and  hillsides  are  fertile  plantations,  while 
the  heights  are  covered  with  dense  forest.  The  rocks  are 
largely  composed  of  silicious  limestone  intersected  by 
dikes  of  greenstone  and  diorite,  all  of  which  are  bordered 
by  the  more  recent  formations  of  white  granular  lime- 
stone. 

The  political  complexion  of  St.  Martin  is  peculiar. 
Seventeen  square  miles  of  the  northern  section  belong  to 
France,  and  the  rest  to  Holland,  while  the  settlers,  largely 
blacks,  are  principally  British,  who  outnumber  both  the 
Dutch  and  French.  About  three  thousand  of  the  inhabi- 
tants are  in  the  French  portion  of  the  island,  and  five  thou- 
sand in  the  Dutch. 

The  French  capital,  on  the  west  side,  is  a  queer  place  by 
the  name  of  Marigot ;  it  is  a  free  port  and  has  a  little  ship- 
ping. The  Dutch  town  Philipsburg  lies  on  a  narrow  beach 
at  the  south  side.  Like  all  the  other  West  Indies,  this 
island  was  once  the  seat  of  sugar-culture,  but  the  inhabi- 
tants are  now  generally  engaged  in  making  salt  and  raising 
provisions. 

Barbuda  lies  thirty  miles  northeast  of  Antigua,  well  out 
in  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Its  area  is  sixty-two  square  miles. 
It  is  low  and  flat,  consisting  of  two  general  levels,  one  of 
which  hardly  rises  more  than  five  feet  above  the  sea,  except 
near  the  eastern  side,  where  a  terraced  table-land  reaches 
one  hundred  and  fifteen  feet  in  height.    On  a  misty  day 


THE  CABEBBEE  ISLANDS  321 

the  island  is  hardly  visible,  and  many  shipwrecks  occur. 
In  former  years  these  accidents  were  the  chief  support  of 
the  population,  who  made  their  living  by  wrecking.  The 
absence  of  a  lighthouse  makes  navigation  dangerous. 
Barbuda  is  composed  entirely  of  granular  shell-debris,  ele- 
vated by  geological  action.  The  surface  is  covered  by  a 
dense  thicket  of  chaparral,  with  a  few  good-sized  trees 
growing  upon  the  thin  limestone  soil.  Notwithstanding 
assertions  to  the  contrary,  the  land  is  unfit  for  general 
agriculture.  As  there  are  no  running  streams,  the  inhabi- 
tants are  dependent  upon  cisterns,  while  the  wild  animals 
live  upon  such  rain-water  as  is  caught  in  the  cracks  and 
crevices  of  the  rocks.  Nearly  all  the  European  domestic 
animals  introduced  in  former  centuries  h^ve  run  wild; 
goats,  horses,  cattle,  and  cats  have  returned  to  their  prime- 
val state,  while  hundreds  of  English  fallow-deer  are  found. 
The  African  guinea-fowl  is  here  in  great  abundance,  and 
is  as  shy  and  timid  as  the  American  quail.  Wild  dogs 
also  abound. 

Politically  Barbuda  is  a  parish  of  Antigua,  being  admin- 
istered by  a  resident  justice  of  the  peace,  whose  business 
it  is  to  look  after  poachers.  His  staff  consists  of  a  school- 
teacher and  a  midwife.  For  three  hundred  years  it  was 
a  hunting-preserve  of  the  Coddrington  family  of  Barbados, 
whose  name  so  frequently  appears  in  the  annals  of  the 
British  "West  Indies,  and  it  has  never  been  opened  to  set- 
tlement. Nevertheless,  the  island  has  been  squatted  upon 
by  a  hardy  race  of  negi'oes,  who  have  developed  into  a 
peculiar  class,  noted  throughout  the  West  Indies  for  their 
splendid  physical  development  and  ability  as  sailors.  They 
are  restricted  by  the  company  owning  the  island  to  the  use 
of  a  few  acres  of  land  ;  and  although  they  are  not  per- 
mitted by  law  to  gather  a  stick  of  wood,  to  kill  the  wild 
animals,  or  to  fish  inshore,  they  manage  to  poach  a  good 
living.  They  live  in  a  village  which  is  perhaps  more  thor- 
oughly African  than  any  other  in  the  New  World.  The 
huts  are  of  the  most  primitive  African  type,  composed  of 

21 


322  CUBA  AND   PORTO   EICO 

wickerwork  with  thatched  roofs,  each  encircled  "by  a 
wicker  fence,  and  so  huddled  together  that  in  order  to  walk 
through  the  village  one  follows  serpentine  paths  barely 
wide  enough  for  a  single  person. 

At  present  the  island  is  leased  by  a  Scotch  company, 
which  derives  a  small  revenue  from  hunting  the  deer  for 
their  hides,  and  cutting  the  yellow  sandalwood.  The 
overseer,  the  only  white  man  on  the  island,  lives  in  com- 
fort in  the  one  civilized  building,  known  as  the  Great 
House,  which  was  formerly  the  Coddrington  hunting-lodge. 
-Barbuda  has  been  seldom  visited  by  travelers;  in  fact, 
the  writer  is  one  of  the  few  who  have  had  an  opportunity 
to  explore  it  within  recent  years,  thanks  to  the  courtesy  of 
Mr.  Donald  Dougald,  the  genial  Scotch  agent,  who  kindly 
granted  the  hospitality  of  his  private  schooner  and  the 
attendance  of  his  servants  upon  the  island. 

There  are  several  ruins  of  old  forts, — strongholds  built 
by  England  during  the  last  century, — whose  massive  walls 
and  round  towers  are  still  found  in  various  pari^  of  the 
island,  reminders  of  the  days  when  every  foot  of 'tlie  West 
Indies  was  so  valiantly  struggled  for  by  the  European 
nations;      - 

The  island  has  no  harbor,  and  landing  is  made  through 
the  surf  on  the  backs  of  sailors,  who  deposit  one  on  a  beach 
of  shell-sand.  In  the  distance  this  beach  looks  like  a  nar- 
row band  of  white  intercalated  between  the  blue  of  the 
ocean  and  the  green  of  the  land.  Upon  close  approach, 
however,  beautiful  blushes  of  carmine  can  be  seen  to  glow 
and  fade  away  with  each  dash  of  the  ocean  surf.  These 
blushes  vie  in  color  with  the  iridescent  tints  of  the  royal 
Caribbean  sunsets.  This  phenomenon  was  easily  explained, 
upon  close  examination.  Each  wash  of  the  waves  brings 
up  millions  of  tiny  pink  shells,  which  are  deep  red  while 
wet,  but  fade  as  they  dry  between  long  rolls  of  the  surf. 

Antigua  is  the  principal  island  of  the  Leeward  group,  of 
which  it  is  the  political  capital,  being  the  residence  of  the 
governor  and  his  staff.    Until  recent  years  this  was  one  of 


STREET  SHOWING  CATHEDRAL  AND  PUBLIC  LIBRARY,  ST.  JOHN 


SUGAR-ESTATE 
ANTIGUA 


THE   CAKIBBEE  ISLANDS  323 

the  most  valuable  of  England's  possessions  in  the  Lesser 
Antilles.  The  northern  half  consists  of  undulating  plains 
of  calcareous  formation,  like  Sombrero  and  Barbuda,  while 
the  southern  side  is  of  a  more  mountainous  type,  composed 
of  old  volcanic  tuffs  and  covered  with  forests. 

On  the  west  side  is  the  principal  and  practically  the  only 
port  at  present  utilized,  that  of  St.  John.  The  town  lies 
at  the  inner  end  of  a  magnificent  oblong  bay,  with  a  pictur- 
esque island  in  its  center.  This  bay  is  so  shallow,  however, 
that  steamers  are  obliged  to  lie  five  miles  away  from  the 
city  and  load  from  lighters.  An  immense  sum  has  been 
expended  in  preparing  to  dredge  a  channel  to  the  city,  but 
through  some  financial  difficulty  the  machinery  lies  in  the 
harbor  unutilized.  St.  John  is  a  pleasant  place,  consisting 
of  large  and  commodious  frame  houses  situated  upon  clean, 
well-graded,  and  macadamized  streets.  There  are  many 
public  buildings,  handsome  gardens  and  lawns,  the  public 
institutions  all  being  models  of  neatness  and  order.  There 
is  an  imposing  English  cathedral.  A  good  public  library, 
freely  patronized  by  the  inhabitants,  is  found  upon  one  of 
the  central  streets. 

Royal  Harbor,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  island,  was  the 
headquarters  of  the  British  admiralty  in  the  West  Indies 
during  the  French  wars.  The  gateway  leading  into  this 
harbor  from  the  landward  side  is  now  guarded  by  a  single 
marine,  and  the  massive  buildings  in  which  English  naval 
heroes  were  formerly  quartered  are  silent  and  deserted. 

Most  of  Antigua  is  in  a  state  of  cultivation,  being  laid 
out  in  neat  plantations  with  extensive  manor-houses  and 
sugar-mills,  while  finely  constructed  roads  lead  to  all  parts 
of  the  island.  Each  estate  has  extensive  sugar-houses, 
with  huge  Dutch  windmills  for  grinding  cane,  although 
steam  machinery  has  been  largely  introduced,  and  the 
people  believe  that  the  introduction  of  improved  processes 
will  benefit  them.  The  population  is  36,119,  mostly  blacks, 
yet  the  land  is  held  by  less  than  sixty  owners.  The  white 
planters— intelligent  and  respectable  Englishmen  or  their 


324  CUBA  AND  POKTO  KICO 

descendants— are  reduced  in  circumstances,  and  present  to 
the  stranger  the  aspect  of  a  refined  but  impoverished  peo- 
ple, bravely  endeavoring  to  keep  up  appearances.  The 
negroes  are  orderly,  well  educated  in  the  elementary 
branches,  and  willing  laborers  at  less  than  a  shilling  a  day ; 
but  even  these  show  poverty  in  their  emaciated  forms,  their 
depressed  manner,  and  the  lack  of  that  luster  of  complex- 
ion which  always  indicates  the  well-fed  black. 

The  economic  condition  of  Antigua  is  indeed  pitiful. 
Of  the  total  exports  of  the  island  ninety-six  per  cent,  is 
sugar,  and  between  the  years  1882  and  1896  the  value  of 
the  sugar  exports  decreased  fully  one  half.  In  former 
times  it  was  one  of  the  most  productive  of  the  sugar 
islands,  but  has  suffered  from  falling  prices  and  the  con- 
stant strain  upon  the  soil  of  over-cultivation.  The  scrawny 
cane-fields  require  a  greater  outlay  in  fertilizers  than  they 
can  possibly  return  in  profit ;  furthermore,  the  cane  is  sub- 
ject to  mildews  and  other  parasitic  fungi  which  sap  its 
vitality.  Accompanying  this  struggle  to  maintain  the 
sugar  industry  there  has  been  a  falling  off  of  wages  of  the 
hosts  of  laborers  who  are  dependent  upon  it.  It  did  not 
require  the  evidence  taken  before  the  late  British]  Sugar 
Commission  to  show  that  poverty  is  increasing,  houses 
falling  into  disrepair,  and  that  generally  a  state  of  depres- 
sion exists,  which  must  eventually  cause  still  more  suffer- 
ing and  discontent.  So  far  as  the  culture  of  cane  is 
concerned,  the  people  have  availed  themselves  of  every 
method  of  modern  agriculture.  The  government  supports 
a  chemical  laboratory  where  the  needs  of  the  soil  are  care- 
fully studied,  as  well  as  the  diseases  of  the  cane,  yet  the 
crop  is  constantly  decreasing  in  quantity  as  well  as  depre- 
ciating in  value.  Most  of  the  sugar  is  still  made  by  the 
muscovado  process,  owing  to  the  special  fitness  of  the  soil 
for  producing  a  cane-juice  yielding  a  rich  and  valuable 
quality  of  molasses.  As  in  all  places  which  depend  on  the 
export  of  muscovado  sugar,  the  great  fall  in  molasses  has 
been  another  blow  to  the  planters. 


A   SUBURBAN    HIGHWAY 


VIEW   OF   CITY    AND    HARBOR 

ST.  JOHN,   ANTIGUA 


THE  CAKIBBEE  ISLANDS  325 

England  has  done  all  within  her  power  to  give  this 
island  civilization,  but,  with  the  decrease  in  the  price  of 
sugar,  government  expenditures  have  rapidly  grown,  owing 
largely  to  the  attempts  to  improve  the  harbor;  and  the 
public  revenue  is  now  far  less  than  the  expenses.  If  the 
sugar  industry  fails,  the  future  of  Antigua  will  be  more 
gloomy  than  that  of  the  other  islands,  its  capabilities  being 
less  and  its  liability  to  droughts  and  hurricanes  greater. 
The  local  trade,  once  in  the  hands  of  rich  English  mer- 
chants, is  now  rapidly  falling  into  the  hands  of  a  people 
who  are  known  as  Portuguese,  but  in  reality  are  natives 
of  the  Azores. 

Grrande-Terre  (G-uadeloupe),  Desirade,  and  Maria  Galante, 
which  by  natural  affinities  belong  to  the  Anguillan  gi'oup, 
are  politically  essential  parts  of  Guadeloupe,  and  will  later 
be  described  with  that  island. 


CHAPTER  XXX 

THE  VOLCANIC  CARIBBEES 

Singnlar  beauty  of  the  islands.     Flora,  fauna,  and  geological  character. 
Saba.     St.  Eustatius.     St.  Christopher.     Nevis.     Montserrat. 

THE  symmetrical  row  of  true  Caribbees  begins  with 
Saba,  on  the  north,  and  ends  with  Grenada,  on  the 
south.  It  consists  of  eleven  conspicuous  members,  in- 
cluding, in  order,  the  islands  of  Saba,  St.  Eustatius,  St. 
Christopher  (St.  Kitts),  Nevis,  Montserrat,  Gruadeloupe, 
Dominica,  Martinique,  St.  Lucia,  St.  Vincent,  and  Grenada. 
This  group  is  perfectly  alined  in  a  flattened  crescent,  the 
concave  side  of  which  faces  westward ;  its  members  occur 
at  remarkably  regular  intervals,  averaging  about  thirty 
miles.  They  are  extraordinarily  alike  in  configuration, 
climate,  and  economic  possibilities,  and  yet  collectively 
different  in  natural  aspect  from  any  other  West  Indian 
group. 

A  beautiful  sight  presents  itself  to  the  traveler  who  sails 
down  the  inner  side  of  the  Caribbee  Islands  and  views 
from  the  steamer's  deck  these  wonderful  lands  as  they 
pass  in  rapid  procession,  rising  almost  vertically  from  the 
deep-blue  sea,  which  on  this  side  is  ordinarily  of  glassy 
smoothness.  Each  island  seems  to  float  in  the  atmosphere 
between  the  azure  waters  and  the  wealth  of  misty  clouds 
which  envelops  its  summits;  the  gorgeous  colors  on  its 
slopes  present,  under  the  various  influences  of  the  cloud- 
tempered  lights,  every  shade  of  delicate  tropical  vegetation. 

326 


THE  VOLCANIC   CABIBBEES  327 

When  thus  viewed  the  islands  appear  as  Edens  of  loveliness. 
Their  general  tone  is  fresh  and  green,  or,  in  comparison 
with  the  other  islands,  more  somber,  for  the  glaring  whites 
so  conspicuous  where  limestones  and  shell-sand  abound 
are  entirely  missing  here. 

While  precipitous  to  an  astonishing  degree,  they  are  not 
craggy  or  angular,  but  lise  in  great  curves  and  slopes  to 
the  rounded  summits  of  the  high  mornes  which  crown 
them.  These  mountains  are  peaks,  but  not  pointed,  and 
while  appearing  everywhere,  they  do  not  occur  in  regular 
crests  or  ridges,  but  are  arranged  in  intangible  masses. 
From  the  sea  the  slopes  appear  so  steep  that  the  beholder 
constantly  wonders  how  human  beings  can  find  upon  them 
foothold  to  till  the  cultivated  areas  or  to  travel  from  place 
to  place  through  the  jungle  of  verdure ;  yet  one  will  see 
here  and  there,  surrounded  by  the  more  somber  forests, 
bright  patches  of  green  cane  accompanied  by  large  groups 
of  houses.  In  addition  to  its  own  matchless  verdure,  each 
island  is  ornamented  with  palms,  roses,  and  exotic  plants 
brought  from  all  parts  of  the  world  by  the  former  inhabi- 
tants. Here  the  gigantic  banian  of  India  grows  beside  the 
African  date-tree  and  the  traveler's  palm  of  Madagascar. 

Ashore,  so  far  as  nature  is  concerned,  the  illusion  is  not 
dispelled.  The  vast  mornes,  cliffs,  and  ravines  are  decked 
with  every  delicate  species  of  deciduous  vegetation,  from 
ferns  that  entangle  the  feet  to  forest  giants  that  cast  their 
shade  from  high  overhead.  These  are  moistened  by  gen- 
tle daily  rains,  giving  the  delicious  odors  and  aspect  of  a 
landscape  after  a  summer  shower.  Nature  has  been  no 
less  generous  in  her  bestowal  of  limpid  waters  than  in  her 
vegetal  bounties ;  everywhere  there  are  running  streams, 
springs,  fountains,  and  cascades,  so  copious  and  abundant 
that  it  is  a  matter  of  wonder  how  watersheds  so  small  can 
supply  them.  The  picturesque  houses  of  the  European 
residents,  built  in  the  styles  of  former  centuries,  and  the 
varied  dress  and  habits  of  the  peculiar  people  are  ever 
interesting,  especially  in  the  five  central  islands  of  the 


328  CUBA  AND   POKTO  EICO 

group,  Montserrat,  Guadeloupe,  Dominica,  Martinique,  and 
St.  Lucia. 

The  climate  of  the  Caribbee  Islands  is  in  general  pleas- 
ing, the  equable  temperature  ranging  from  about  66°  to 
82°  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  slightly  decreasing  toward 
the  summits.  The  rainfall  also  varies  with  altitude  and 
locality  relative  to  the  trade- winds,  the  precipitation  being 
usually  much  greater  on  the  leeward  side.  There  is  hardly 
a  day  in  the  year  when  gentle  rains  fail  to  fall,  and  some- 
times tremendous  cloud-bursts  occur,  with  disastrous 
results. 

Geologically  these  islands  are  peculiar.  They  are  of 
volcanic  origin,  but  not  volcanoes,  although  a  few  craters 
can  be  found,  though  invisible  from  the  distance,  nestled 
in  some  of  the  lofty  eroded  summits.  The  islands  are  great 
heaps  of  old  volcanic  debris  piled  up  in  the  Tertiary  period, 
which  have  been  carved  by  water  into  their  present  forms. 
The  rocks  are  all  basalts  or  crumbling  tuffs,  which  weather 
into  black  soils  of  marvelous  depth  and  richness. 

While  not  blessed  with  native  mammals,  these  islands 
abound  in  beautiful  birds;  each  has  a  special  fauna. 
Of  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight  birds  collected  by 
Ober,  seven  species  only  are  common  to  all  the  islands, 
while  as  many  as  fifty-two  of  them  occur  in  one  island. 
There  are  singularly  few  venomous  reptiles  or  insects, 
except  on  Martinique  and  St.  Lucia,  where  are  found  the 
fer-de-lance,  a  poisonous  trigonocephalous  snake,  the  most 
venomous  and  deadly  of  the  serpentine  kind. 

The  windward  sides  are  quite  different ;  the  open  Atlan- 
tic breaks  with  a  terrible  surf  against  the  shores,  and  the 
trade-winds  sweep  them  with  such  ferocity  that  the  vege- 
tation all  bends  in  a  cringing  position  toward  the  land. 
There  are  no  ports  along  this  side,  and  passing  steamers 
keep  far  from  the  shores. 

These  islands,  so  allied  by  natural  affinities  into  a  kin- 
dred group,  are  cursed  by  unnatural  distribution  among 
the  nationalities.     Sailing  down  them  you  first  meet  Dutch 


^  ,-■-■'"■•■  •  ■  "  ■ "  X^".'^. ■  •-^Plrt^W^HP^"' 

^^B^^^^^^T^ 

- 

TOWN   OF    BOTTOM,  ISLAND  OF  SABA,   SITUATED   IN    AN   OLD   CRATER 


GUSTAVIA,  ST.  BARTHOLOMEW 
CAKIBBEE   ISLANDS 


THE  VOLCANIC   CAKIBBEES  329 

Saba,  from  which  you  can  see  the  same  flag  flying  over  St. 
Eustatius,  or  beyond  it  the  Union  Jack  of  England  on  St. 
Kitts.  The  last-named  government  also  owns  Nevis. 
Then  comes  French  Guadeloupe,  from  which  you  can  see 
English  Dominica,  intentionally  left  between  it  and  French 
Martinique  for  the  purpose  of  severing  the  two  French 
colonies.  From  Martinique  southward  the  others  are 
British  possessions,  though  St.  Lucia  is  French  in  popula- 
tion and  tradition. 

Saba,  St.  Eustatius,  St.  Christopher,  Nevis,  and  Mont- 
serrat  constitute  the  northern  end  of  the  chain,  and  their 
combined  area  is  not  equal  to  that  of  any  one  of  the  five 
central  islands.  Saba  and  St.  Eustatius  are  exceptional 
featui'es,  inasmuch  as  they  are  each  fine  examples  of  old 
volcanic  cones  or  craters. 

The  queer  little  Dutch  island  of  Saba  is  only  five  square 
miles  in  area.  It  is  a  single  volcanic  cone  rising  shai-ply 
out  of  the  sea  to  a  height  of  nearly  twenty-eight  hundred 
feet.  The  volcanic  rocks  of  the  island  are  not  solid  basalts, 
but  mostly  irregularly  stratified  tuffs.  There  is  said  to  be  a 
large  mine  of  pure  sulphur.  The  landing  is  a  rocky  cove, 
and  from  this  one  must  ascend  a  precipitous  pathway 
known  as  the  Ladder,  consisting  of  steps  cut  in  the  rock,  to 
the  height  of  eight  hundred  feet,  in  order  to  reach  the 
principal  settlement,  known  as  the  town  of  Bottom,  which 
is  located  on  the  floor  of  the  old  crater.  Everything  has 
to  be  transported  up  to  this  height  on  the  heads  of  the 
people ;  one  hundred  pounds  is  the  ordinary  load.  The 
twenty-five  hundred  Dutch  residents  forming  the  prin- 
cipal population  are  fair- skinned,  rosy-cheeked,  and  tow- 
headed,  and  afford  an  interesting  example  of  successful 
north-European  colonization  in  the  tropics.  Strange  to 
say,  their  principal  occupations  are  seafaring  and  boat- 
building. The  best  and  stanchest  fishing-boats  of  the 
Caribbees  are  built  in  this  crater  and  lowered  down  the 
mountain-side  with  ropes.  The  timber  for  constructing 
the  boats  must  also  be  drawn  up  in  a  similar  manner. 


330  CUBA  AND   POETO  RICO 

Saba  is  also  exceptional  in  that  its  population  is  white,  the 
blacks  overwhelmingly  predominating  in  the  other  islands. 

St.  Eustatius,  St.  Christopher,  and  Nevis  seem  to  be  the 
tips  of  a  larger  submerged  area  represented  by  a  shallow 
bank  which  closely  follows  their  shores.  St.  Eustatius, 
eight  square  miles  in  area,  is  also  a  part  of  Holland's  di- 
minutive American  domain,  and  has  a  population  of  2350 
people,  mostly  Dutch  and  negroes.  The  island  has  a  few 
patches  of  level  land,  but  is  largely  made  up  of  several  old 
volcanic  hills,  like  two  or  three  Sabas  crowded  on  a  single 
platform.  The  principal  crater  is  near  the  southern  end  of 
the  island,  and  is  a  perfect  specimen  of  a  cinder-cone, 
slightly  broken  down  on  the  northern  side,  the  lower  slopes 
falling  away  into  low  hills  and  meadows,  which  make  up 
by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  island,  which  is  thinly 
inhabited  and  without  trade.  In  olden  times  its  caves  and 
secret  valleys  served  as  hiding-places  for  pirates  and 
smugglers,  and  it  is  not  entirely  free  from  suspicion  at 
the  present  day.  Stoddard,  in  his  charming  book  entitled 
"  Cruising  among  the  Caribbees,"  says  that  St.  Eustatius 
is  a  great  resort  for  picnic  parties.  Judging  from  the 
condition  in  which  a  party  returned  thence  to  St.  Kitts, 
some  of  whose  members  paid  a  visit  to  Stoddard's  ship 
after  their  day's  outing,  there  must  still  be  stores  of  spirits 
in  the  craters,  and  a  readiness  to  share  them  with  all  comers. 

St.  Christopher— or  St.  Kitts,  as  the  English  call  it- 
can  be  seen  from  St.  Eustatius,  apparently  floating  like  a 
huge  black  iceberg  in  the  sea.  A  nearer  approach  brings 
out  its  beautiful  colors.  Hearn  has  pictured  it  as  a  long 
chain  of  crater  shapes,  truncated,  jagged,  or  round.  All 
these  are  united  by  the  curving  hollows  of  land  or  by  fila- 
ments,— very  low  valleys, — and  from  a  distance  not  remote 
take  on  a  curious  segmented,  jointed  appearance,  like  cer- 
tain insect  forms. 

The  oval-shaped  island  is  thirteen  miles  long  and  from 
three  to  six  in  width,  embracing  in  all  about  sixty-five 
square  miles,  three  fourths  of  its  area  being  under  cultiva- 


THE  VOLCANIC  CAKIBBEES  331 

tion.  The  mountains  of  St.  Kitts  are  broken  into  wild 
ridges  and  ravines  for  several  thousand  feet,  meeting  the 
sky  with  an  edge  like  a  knife-blade,  and  culminating  in  a 
pyramid  of  black  lava  known  as  Mount  Misery,  4330  feet 
high.  Since  emancipation  it  has  borne  the  name  of  Mount 
Liberty.  In  its  summit  is  a  crater  about  one  thousand  feet 
deep,  which  has  been  long  quiescent,  and  is  now  trans- 
formed into  a  lake  fringed  with  trees.  A  sister  summit, 
Monkey  Hill,  is  nearly  as  high.  One  of  the  parasitic  cones, 
known  as  Brimstone  Hill,  seven  hundred  and  eighty  feet 
high,  is  crowned  by  a  citadel  formerly  called  the  Gibraltar 
of  the  West  Indies,  but  now  abandoned. 

The  principal  town,  Basse-Terre,  is  situated  on  a  beau- 
tiful curving  inlet  of  the  shore.  The  town  from  the  sea 
presents  a  charming  glimpse  of  red  and  white  roofs  nestled 
among  tall  trees,  while  gradual  slopes  covered  with  sugar- 
plantations  and  dotted  with  tall  chimneys  or  gi'oups  of 
whitestone  buildings  appear  behind  the  town.  There  are 
palms  everywhere,  cocoa-,  fan-,  and  cabbage-palms ;  many 
breadfruit  trees,  tamarinds,  bananas,  Indian  fig-trees, 
mangos,  and  unfamiliar  things  the  negroes  call  by  incom- 
prehensible names — "  sap-saps  "  and  "  dhool-dhools." 

Like  all  the  English  colonies,  St.  Kitts  has  excellent 
roads.  There  are  several  small  villages  throughout  the 
island.  The  people,  who  call  themselves  Kittefonians,  have 
many  tidy,  well-built  wooden  houses,  arranged  in  neat 
streets,  or  sun-ounding  a  handsome  square  containing  a 
wonderful  banian-tree  and  many  other  beautiful  plants. 
The  population  of  about  31,900  is  nearly  all  black  or  col- 
ored. The  distinction  between  these  classes  is  very  marked 
and  always  insisted  upon.  Colored  people  may  associate 
with  whites  upon  terms  of  equality,  but  the  negi'o  is  always 
reckoned  as  belonging  to  a  servile  race,  and  must  keep  an 
appropriate  station. 

Sugar  is  practically  the  only  export,  and  this  industry 
is  almost  dead,  the  condition  being  very  similar  to  that  in 
Antigua.    Reduction  of  labor  and  want  of  employment 


332  CUBA   AND    POKTO   EICO 

have  caused  great  distress  among  the  black  laborers,  who 
are  unable  to  obtain  holdings  of  their  own,  and  in  1896 
there  were  serious  riots. 

St.  Kitts  is  known  as  the  mother  colony  of  the  Caribbees. 
Here  were  founded  the  first  French  and  English  settlements, 
and  from  this  point  the  southern  islands  were  gradually- 
peopled.  The  island  was  named  St.  Christopher  by  Colum- 
bus, but  when  it  came  into  the  possession  of  the  English 
its  name  was  changed  to  St.  Kitts.  The  aboriginal  name 
was  Lia  Minga.  The  Spaniards  did  not  settle  the  island ; 
the  English  were  the  first  to  take  possession,  and  they 
were  followed  shortly  afterward  by  the  French.  At  first 
the  English  and  French  divided  the  opposite  ends  between 
them,  and  the  respective  domains  were  marked  by  cactus 
hedges.  Later  the  island  underwent  various  attacks  from 
the  Spaniards  and  bucaneers,  and  suffered  by  warfare 
between  the  French  and  the  English.  In  1690  the  English 
settlers,  aided  by  the  forces  of  their  country  brought  in  for 
the  purpose,  expelled  the  French.  At  present  St.  Kitts 
and  Nevis  form  one  British  presidency  under  a  single  ad- 
ministration. 

Kevis,  from  a  distance,  appears,  as  said  by  Hearn,  to  be 
"floating  like  a  cloud  on  the  purplish  dark  edge  of  the 
sea."  As  one  approaches,  "  the  cloud  shape  enlarges  and 
heightens,  without  changing  contour,  into  a  wonderful 
island."  "Its  outlines  begin  to  sharpen,  with  faintest 
pencilings  of  color.  Shadowy  valleys  appear,  spectral  hol- 
lows, phantom  slopes  of  pallid  blue  or  green.  The  appari- 
tion is  so  like  a  mirage  that  it  is  difficult  to  persuade  one's 
self  that  one  is  looking  at  real  land — that  it  is  not  a  dream. 
It  seems  to  have  shaped  itself  suddenly  out  of  the  glowing 
haze."  It  is  a  superb  cone  rising  sheer  from  the  sea  to  a 
height  of  3460  feet,  and  flanked  by  secondary  crests. 

This  little  island  is  one  of  the  most  charming  and  pic- 
turesque of  all  the  Lesser  Antilles.  Although  it  is  not  in 
the  regular  route  of  steamers,  it  is  reached  by  a  half -hour's 
sail  from  St.  Kitts.    It  was  originally  named  Nievis  by 


PUBLIC   GARDEN 


ST.  KITTS 


THE  VOLCANIC   CAEIBBEES  333 

Colmnbns,  in  honor  of  "  Our  Lady  of  the  Snow,"  but  the 
English  have  corrupted  it  into  "  Nevis."  It  is  famous  as  the 
birthplace  of  Alexander  Hamilton,  and  in  the  old  Fig-tree 
Church,  a  few  miles  from  town,  the  register  shows  that 
Horatio  Nelson,  then  a  captain  in  the  British  navy,  was 
maiTied  to  Mrs.  Fanny  Nesbitt. 

The  estimated  present  population  is  13,700o  The  acre- 
age ^s  32,000,  of  which  6868  acres  are  cultivated.  The 
precipitous  nature  of  the  surface  prevents  cultivation  with 
the  plow,  so  that  all  tillage  is  that  of  the  spade.  Here, 
as  elsewhere  in  the  British  Caribbees,  the  black  man  has 
emigrated  in  search  of  employment,  and  the  women  greatly 
outnumber  the  men. 

Charlestown,  the  capital,  has  only  a  few  hundred  inhabi- 
tants, and  hardly  more  than  a  single  street  stretching  along 
the  beach.  The  architecture  is  of  the  ancient  period  of 
English  West  Indian  settlements,  and  embraces  quaint  old 
houses  of  stone  with  tiled  roofs.  General  decay  is  notice- 
able. Whites  are  few,  negroes  many.  In  olden  days  this 
island  was  famous  for  its  fertility  and  wealth,  and  Charles- 
town  was  the  principal  pleasure-resort  of  the  West  Indies, 
where  wealth  and  fashion  gathered  to  spend  the  season  at 
the  famous  sulphur  baths.  These  are  a  short  distance  from 
the  town,  where  the  ruins  of  an  immense  hotel,  which  might 
have  accommodated  several  hundred  guests,  can  be  seen. 

Politically  Nevis  is  really  a  part  of  St.  Kitts,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  fourteen  miles  of  water,  the  channel 
being  only  twenty- six  feet  deep  and  scarcely  two  miles 
wide  at  its  narrowest  part.  The  two  islands  have  daily 
communication  by  a  steam  ferry.  Nevis,  however,  seems 
to  be  much  better  off  than  its  neighbor,  the  difference 
being  attributed  to  the  fact  that  in  the  former  island  the 
negroes  have  no  difficulty  in  obtaining  land,  which  has 
been  broken  up  and  sold  in  small  lots.  Like  the  other 
British  islands,  Nevis  is  heavily  charged  with  debts  and 
ever-increasing  expenditures,  accompanied  by  a  decliuing 
revenue. 


334  CUBA   AND   POETO   KICO 

From  Nevis  one  can  see  the  summits  of  Montserrat, 
about  forty  miles  southeast.  This  is  the  first  and  smallest 
of  the  middle  islands  of  the  chain — the  larger  beads  of  the 
graduated  necklace. 

Montserrat  was  so  named  by  Columbus  in  1493,  in  mem- 
oiy  of  a  mountain  in  Spain  similarly  broken  in  appear- 
ance. It  is  small,  its  length  being  only  eleven  miles  and 
its  greatest  width  seven,  with  a  total  area  of  thirty-two 
and  a  half  square  miles. 

From  St.  Kitts  southward  the  crater-like  appearance  of 
the  Caribbees  ceases,  and  Montserrat  is  of  the  rugged 
morne  type  of  Martinique,  with  soufriereSj  or  secondary 
craterlets,  nestled  within  the  greater  mass  of  old  eroded 
volcanic  material.  It  is  a  confusion  of  hills  and  mountains, 
the  highest  reaching  three  thousand  feet.  These  are  richly 
wooded,  and  their  steeply  sloping  sides  are  gullied  by  deep 
ravines.  The  island  is  called  the  Montpellier  of  the  West, 
because  of  the  elasticity  of  its  atmosphere,  the  pictur- 
esqueness  of  its  hills,  and  its  lovely  scenery.  The  tem- 
perature varies  according  to  height,  and  is  generally  cool 
and  dry. 

Plymouth,  the  capital,  like  all  the  prominent  towns  of 
the  Caribbees,  is  on  the  west  or  leeward  side.  It  lies  close 
to  the  sea-shore,  backed  by  high  hills  and  mountains,  and 
is  a  collection  of  closely  crowded  two-story  frame  and 
stone  houses  with  gabled  roofs. 

The  Englishman  will  tell  you  that  Montserrat  is  histori- 
cally conspicuous  from  the  fact  that  it  has  not  suffered  in 
the  past  to  the  same  extent  as  the  other  islands  from  the 
brunt  of  the  imperial  wars,  although,  like  the  others,  it  was 
a  bone  of  contention  between  the  French  and  the  English. 
It  was  settled  by  the  English  in  1632,  occupied  by  the 
French  in  1664,  became  English  again  in  1668,  surrendered 
to  the  French  in  1782,  and  returned  to  the  English  in  1784, 
since  which  it  has  been  an  English  colony.  To  an  Ameri- 
can this  may  appear  a  complicated  history,  but  in  compari- 


THE  VOLCANIC   CAKIBBEES  335 

son  witli  the  vicissitudes  of  the  other  islands  its  career  as 
a  whole  has  been  delightfully  quiescent.  Montserrat  has 
also  passed  through  all  of  the  various  changes  leading  to 
an  English  crown  colony.  It  has  a  president,  or,  as  he  is 
now  called,  a  commissioner,  with  the  usual  executive  coun- 
cil, legislative  council,  etc.,  under  the  supervision  of  the 
general  government  of  the  Leeward  Islands. 

It  was  peopled  at  the  last  census  by  11,762  souls,  but 
the  number  is  now  estimated  at  12,500,  and  it  is  one  of  the 
most  densely  populated  of  the  British  Lesser  Antilles.  In 
former  centuries  the  island  had  a  large  European  popula- 
tion, but  it  is  now  mostly  inhabited  by  negroes,  who, 
strange  to  say,  speak  to  this  day  with  an  Irish  brogue, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  earlier  settlers  were  of  that  race. 
A  story  is  told  of  an  Irishman  who,  on  arriving  at  the 
island,  was  hailed  in  vernacular  Irish  by  a  negro  from 
one  of  the  boats  that  came  alongside.  "  Thunder  and  turf ! " 
exclaimed  the  Irishman,  "  how  long  have  yez  been  here  ? " 
"Thray  months,"  the  black  man  answered.  "Thray 
months !  and  so  black  already !  Be  the  powers,  I  '11  not 
stay  among  yez !  "  And  the  visitor  returned,  a  sadder  and 
wiser  man,  to  his  own  Emerald  Isle. 

Most  of  the  negro  peasants  possess  some  land,  and,  while 
there  is  poverty,  there  is  no  distress.  Between  the  years 
1882  and  1896  the  value  of  its  chief  crop,  sugar,  fell  off 
one  half.  The  sugar-estates  produce  muscovado  sugar 
only,  and  this  is  no  longer  in  demand.  But  the  British  in 
the  West  Indies  will  tell  you  that  MontseiTat  is  distin- 
guished by  the  fact  that  it  has  largely  survived  the  sugar 
desolation  and  branched  out  into  new  lines  of  agriculture, 
particularly  the  cultivation  of  limes.  Arrowroot  is  also 
exported  in  small  quantities,  as  well  as  essential  oils.  To 
my  eyes,  however,  there  was  no  sign  of  what  we  call  pros- 
perity in  this  country,  where  a  condition  similar  to  that  of 
Montserrat  would  suggest  only  the  "  abandoned  farms  "  of 
New  England.    The  revenue,  as  elsewhere,  is  constantly 


336  CUBA  AND   POETO   EICO 

falling  oft.  Public  works  are  being  advanced  and  new  roads 
built,  but  these  only  add  to  the  taxation  and  suffering 
of  the  people. 

In  November,  1896,  a  terrific  storm  of  wind  and  rain 
wrought  havoc  and  desolation  over  the  island ;  roads  be- 
came roaring  torrents,  and  valuable  properties  were  de- 
stroyed by  the  floods. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 

THE  ISLANDS  OF  GUADELOUPE  AND  DOMINICA 

Govemment  and  resources  of  Guadeloupe.  Basse-Terre.  Grande- 
Terre.  Maria  Galante.  Desirade.  Les  Saintes.  Cities  and  towns 
of  Guadeloupe.  Dominica  the  beautiful.  A  fertile  soU  awaiting 
cultivation. 

FROM  Montserrat  the  beautiful  French  island  of  Gua- 
deloupe is  plainly  seen,  but  the  chances  are  ten  to 
one  that  you  cannot  go  to  it  without  first  returning  to  St, 
Thomas  or  New  York,  to  get  some  other  than  an  English 
line  of  steamers.  A  perpetual  quarantine  seems  to  exist 
between  the  French  and  English  possessions,  which  renders 
communication  between  them  difficult  and  oftentimes  im- 
possible. 

Guadeloupe  and  Martinique  are  the  two  largest  islands 
of  the  Caribbees  and  are  owned  by  France.  They  are 
separated  from  each  other,  however,  by  the  large  English 
possession  of  Dominica,  almost  equaling  either  of  them  in 
size,  and  they  have  little  in  common,  as  each  island  consti- 
tutes a  distinct  department  of  the  republic  of  France.  But 
these  two  large  French  islands  are  most  picturesque  and 
interesting.  There  is  no  appearance  of  that  abject  poverty 
and  incessant  begging  which  meet  one  at  every  turn  in 
the  English  possessions.  People  have  an  air  of  thrift  and 
self-respect,  which  finds  expression  in  the  cleanliness  and 
the  taste  displayed  in  their  dress,  streets,  houses,  customs, 
and  agricultural  possessions.    The  reader  who  wishes  to 

22  337 


338  CUBA  AND   POKTO  KICO 

know  more  about  them  than  I  can  tell  now  should  readOber's 
"  Camps  in  the  Caribbees,"  and  Laf cadio  Hearn's  delightful 
book  entitled  "  Two  Years  in  the  French  West  Indies." 

These  French  islands  also  excel  the  others  in  agricultural 
development,  and  in  the  midst  of  the  general  Caribbean 
industrial  depression  show  at  least  some  signs  of  vitality. 
Furthermore,  each  is  populated  by  a  wonderfully  pictur- 
esque people,  having  costumes  and  habits  which  preserve 
as  nearly  as  possible  the  old-time  French  colonial  life  of 
Haiti  and  Louisiana. 

Guadeloupe "  lies  in  latitude  15°  N.  and  longitude 
61°  W.,  and  has  an  area  of  five  hundred  and  eighty-three 
square  miles— more,  in  fact,  than  the  combined  area  of 
all  the  small  Caribbees  thus  far  described.  It  consists  of 
an  archipelago,  or  rather  one  large  double  island  with 
several  small  dependent  ones ;  for  the  main  Guadeloupe  is 
divided  into, two  well-defined  and  entirely  distinct  islands 
by  ac  marine  strait  known  as  the  Riviere  Salee,  which  is 
nayigable  for  small  sailing-vessels. 

The  western  half,  known  as  Basse-Terre,  is  a  rugged 
mass  of  old  volcanic  tuffs,  like  Martinique  and  Montserrat, 
surmounted  by  foui'  superb  cloud-capped  mornes.  These 
are  known  as  Grosse  Montague,  Deux  Mamelles,  La  Sou- 
friere,  and  the  Caraibe,  and  rise  2370,  2540,  4900,  and  2300 
feet  respectively.  Besides  these  there  are  dozens  of  smaller 
peaks,  such  as  the  Houlemont,  less  than  1800  feet  high. 
The  Soufriere  was  an  active  volcano  in  1797,  when  it 
hurled  forth  dense  ashes,  pumice,  and  sulphurous  vapors. 
In  1843  its  convulsions  shook  the  island  and  tumbled  its 
towns  into  ruins.  There  is  no  record  of  more  recent  vol- 
canic action,  but  the  many  thermal  springs  and  soufrieres 
emitting  vapors  and  gases  show  that  it  is  not  altogether 
quiescent.  Like  all  the  volcanic  Caribbees,  the  Basse- 
Terre  is  beautiful  beyond  description,  its  mornes  and 
valleys,  its  steep  coastal  bluffs  and  mantle  of  vegetation, 
being  especially  fine.  The  forests  are  interspersed  with 
valuable  timber,  but  this  is  little  worked.     The  mean 


THE  ISLANDS   OF   GUADELOUPE  AND   DOMINICA  339 

temperature  is  78°  F.,  the  minimum  being  61°  and  the 
maxmum  101°. 

The  eastern  or  windward  island  is  known  as  the  Grande- 
Terre.  Geologically  it  is  entirely  different  from  the 
Basse-Terre,  belonging  to  the  Anguillan  type,  previously 
described.  It  consists  of  a  calcareous  plain,  some  two 
or  three  hundred  feet  in  height,  which  has  been  cut  into 
numerous  circular  islands  by  erosion.  The  highest  point 
on  this  island  is  only  four  hundred  and  fifty  feet.  This 
region  is  now  the  seat  of  extensive  sugar-estates.  The 
coast  of  Grande-Terre  is  constantly  increasing  through 
coral  growth  and  the  washing  of  the  debris  upon  the 
shores.  This  consolidates  and  is  quarried  for  building 
purposes.  The  process  of  consolidation  goes  on  so  rapidly 
that  small  objects  are  constantly  embedded,  and  the  supply 
for  building  renewed.  The  Grande-Terre  is  almost  a  con- 
tinuous plain  of  sugar. 

Attached  to  Guadeloupe  are  several  adjacent  outlying 
islands — Maria  Galante,  Desirade,  and  Les  Saintes.  Maria 
Galante  and  Desirade  are  calcareous,  like  Grande-Terre,  of 
the  Anguillan  type,  but  more  largely  made  up  of  elevated 
coral-reef  rock.  The  former  is  a  few  miles  south  of 
Guadeloupe.  It  is  so  terraced  that  it  resembles  an  old 
Babylonian  tower,  surmounted  by  a  plateau  six  hundred 
and  seventy-five  feet  high.  The  island  is  forty  miles  in 
circumference  and  supports  seventeen  thousand  people.* 
Desirade  lies  to  the  east  of  Grande-Terre.  It  is  a  little 
island  with  a  terraced  platf  oim,  very  similar  to  the  round 
hiUs  of  the  mainland.  It  is  ten  square  miles  in  area  and 
supports  fourteen  hundred  people.  Les  Saintes,  to  the 
south  of  Basse-Terre,  are  fragmentary  igneous  rocks  dis- 
posed in  the  same  direction  as  the  whole  interior  chain  of 
the  Caribbees.  These  picturesque  islets  culminate  in  La 
Chameau,  altitude  ten  hundred  and  forty  feet.  They  were 
once  the  health-resort  of  Guadeloupe,  and  their  summits 
are  crowned  with  old  fortifications.  The  basin  of  the 
Saintes  is  still  an  important  French  naval  station. 


340  CUBA   AND   POKTO    RICO 

Guadeloupe  was  a  Spanish  possession  until  1635,  when 
it  was  taken  by  the  French.  Since  then  the  island  has 
several  times  changed  hands,  the  English  having  captured 
it  in  1794  and  freed  the  slaves.  In  1802,  the  island  having 
been  returned  to  France,  together  with  Martinique,  in 
exchange  for  St.  Lucia,  the  French  attempted  to  restore 
slavery ;  but,  rather  than  return  to  their  masters,  many  of 
the  people  committed  suicide,  four  hundred  under  Delgris 
having  blown  themselves  up  at  one  time,  in  a  fortification. 
Over  ten  thousand  blacks  were  killed  or  transported,  and 
thousands  sent  to  the  Napoleonic  wars  in  Italy.  England 
again  captured  the  island,  in  1810,  during  Napoleon's  brief 
reign  of  one  hundred  days,  but  afterward  returned  it  to 
France.    In  1848  emancipation  was  declared. 

Communication  is  carried  on  entirely  by  highways  and 
coasting- vessels.  All  over  this  double  island  are  the  best 
of  roads,  some  of  which  lead  up  to  the  woods  that  border 
on  the  gloomy  crater  of  the  quiescent  volcano.  Here,  as 
well  as  in  the  sister  colony  of  Martinique,  will  be  noted 
the  thrift  and  good  management  of  the  French.  The  peo- 
ple go  from  place  to  place  afoot,  or  in  quaint  French 
vehicles  like  those  seen  in  the  mountainous  portions  of 
France.  There  are  no  railways,  nor  have  any  American 
inventions  been  introduced  into  Guadeloupe. 

While  Guadeloupe  is  agriculturally  more  prosperous 
than  the  British  colonies,  it  nevertheless  presents  signs  of 
the  universal  decay  which  has  overtaken  the  Caribbee 
Islands.  Sugar  is  the  chief  agricultural  product,  and  is 
grown  upon  502  properties,  employing  42,000  people.  The 
sugar  industry  is  much  more  economically  conducted  than 
in  the  British  islands,  through  a  system  of  central  usines. 
There  are  numerous  coffee-plantations  in  Guadeloupe.  The 
coffee  and  sugar  interests  do  not  conflict,  for  coffee  is 
grown  on  the  highlands  and  sugar  on  the  lower  plains. 
The  cultivation  of  coffee  employs  4936  people.  In  all 
there  are  62,760  acres  in  sugar,  86,485  acres  in  coffee,  and 
4037  in  cocoa.    France  consumes  most  of  the  products  of 


THE  ISLANDS   OF  GUADELOUPE  AND  DOMINICA  341 

Griiadeloupe,  although  there  is  an  extensive  trade  with  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain. 

Guadeloupe  is  a  department  of  France.  The  government 
consists  of  a  governor  and  his  council,  and  a  general  legis- 
lative assembly  of  thirty  members.  The  jurisdiction  em- 
braces the  islands  of  Basse-Terre,  Grande-Terre,  Maria 
Galante,  Desii'ade,  Les  Saintes,  and  half  of  St.  Martin,  pre- 
viously mentioned.  The  colony  is  divided  into  arrondisse- 
ments,  cantons,  and  communes.  The  municipal  councils 
are  framed  on  the  French  model,  and  the  department  is 
represented  in  the  French  chambers  by  one  senator  and 
two  deputies.  The  revenue  and  expenditure  of  the  island 
each  amounted  to  $1,305,000  in  1897.  France,  further- 
more, expended  $403,000  on  the  colony.  No  specie  is  in 
circulation— only  notes  of  the  bank  of  Guadeloupe.  They 
read,  "  Redeemable  upon  presentation  in  specie."  No  ex- 
change is  obtainable  with  the  United  States,  and  only  a 
limited  exchange  with  Paris,  at  a  premium  of  ten  per  cent, 
for  a  draft  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  days.  There  are 
ninety-seven  elementary  schools,  with  11,000  pupils ;  also 
one  lycee^  with  350  pupils.  The  imports  for  1896  amounted 
to  $5,490,148 ;  the  exports,  $4,700,000.  One  fourth  of  the 
value  of  the  imports  in  1895  was  from  the  United  States, 
but  the  island  products  went  to  France. 

Point-a-Pitre  (population  17,100)  is  the  principal  seaport, 
and  is  situated  on  the  windward  side  of  Basse-Terre.  The 
present  town  is  new,  but  stands  on  a  site  where  older 
buildings  have  been  destroyed  by  fire,  earthquakes,  and 
hurricanes.  It  is  laid  out  in  broad  streets  with  public 
squares,  and  contains  many  large  buildings  with  high 
gabled  roofs.  There  is  an  interesting  museum  containing 
specimens  of  the  animals  and  archaeological  remains  of  the 
island.  The  city  has  many  official  buildings,  a  cathedral, 
a  market-place,  and  some  beautiful  gardens.  Poiut-a-Pitre 
has  suffered  many  disasters,  especially  a  terrible  earthquake 
in  1843. 

Le  Moule,  on  the  east  side  of  Grande-Terre,  is  as  large 


342  CUBA  AND   POETO   KICO 

as  Point-a-Pitre,  There  are  many  small  villages,  like 
Porte  d'Enfer,  and  Grand  Bourg,  the  capital  of  Maria 
Galante. 

The  population  of  the  main  island  in  1894  was  107,000, 
three  fourths  of  whom  were  colored  people  and  blacks. 
There  were  also  15,000  coolies.  These  people  are  largely 
French  mulattos,  of  a  type  which  will  be  more  fully  dis- 
cussed in  our  description  of  Martinique. 

Dominica  stands  between  the  two  French  islands  of 
Guadeloupe  and  Martinique,  almost  rivaling  them  in  size, 
and  is  the  largest  of  the  British  Caribbees.  The  island  is 
twenty-nine  miles  long,  sixteen  miles  broad,  and  has  an 
area  of  two  hundred  and  ninety-one  square  miles.  It 
presents  the  same  magnificent  scenery  as  all  the  Carib- 
bees, in  fact  exceeding  them  in  the  loftiness  of  its  mornes 
and  the  beauty  of  its  vegetation ;  for  here  is  found  the  high- 
est summit  of  the  island  chain,  known  as  Morne  Diabloten, 
5314  feet  high.  From  the  top  of  this  the  scenery  is  terrible 
in  its  grandeur,  yet  enchanting  in  its  beauty.  A  little 
sulphur  occurs  in  old  soufrieres  in  the  mornes,  and  there 
are  several  thermal  springs,  but  there  are  no  true  or 
recent  volcanic  craters.  There  is  a  beautiful  old  crater- 
lake,  however,  about  2500  feet  lower  than  Morne  Diablo- 
ten, which,  until  recently,  was  still  flooded  by  boiling  water 
from  springs  bubbling  up  from  the  bottom,  and  every  five 
minutes  upheaving  in  a  foaming  geyser.  In  1880,  how- 
ever, land- slips  took  place,  and  much  of  the  water  es- 
caped, the  lake  having  thereby  been  greatly  diminished  in 
area.  Within  a  short  distance  from  the  margin  it  is  not 
less  than  three  hundred  feet  deep. 

The  island  is  noted  for  the  quantity  of  its  rainfall.  The 
temperature  ranges  from  70°  in  spring,  winter,  and  au- 
tumn, to  80°  in  summer.  The  exports  are  cattle,  cocoa, 
lime-juice,  rum,  molasses,  and  sugar. 

Dominica  has  one  miserable  little  town  called  Roseau, 
picturesquely  situated  upon  its  western  side.  It  is  at  the 
foot  of  the  mountains,  where  they  drop  into  the  sea,  while 


THE  ISLANDS   OF  GUADELOUPE  AND  DOMINICA  343 

a  river  comes  rushing  and  roaring  down  the  hills  through 
a  rugged  and  broken  ravine  behind  it.  The  streets  are 
long  and  spacious  and  regularly  paved,  and  there  is  one 
large  square  or  promenade,  used  also  as  a  market-place. 
These  streets  are  now  deserted  by  commerce,  however,  and 
the  government  officials  hold  court  in  a  community  of 
blacks.  There  are  French  Catholic  and  English  chui'ches, 
a  well-kept  botanical  garden,  and  a  public  library. 

The  population  of  the  island  in  1891  was  26,841,  or  1370 
less  than  in  1881.  The  people  are  mostly  black,  descen- 
dants of  the  slaves  of  the  days  when  Dominica  was  a  pros- 
perous French  colony,  and  they  still  speak  a  French  patois. 
These,  together  with  the  white  Dominicans,  are  mainly 
French  Catholic,  and  still  look  upon  the  British  owners  as 
foreigners.  The  people  live  almost  entirely  within  a  mile 
or  two  of  the  coast,  and  there  are  no  roads  into  the 
interior. 

One  of  the  two  surviving  groups  of  Caribs,  or  aborigines 
of  these  islands,  is  not  the  least  interesting  part  of  the 
Dominican  population.  These  people,  about  three  hun- 
dred in  number,  are  now  largely  mixed  with  the  blacks. 
They  inhabit  the  mountains  of  the  interior,  and  make  their 
livelihood  by  weaving  a  peculiar  basket  which  is  univer- 
sally used  in  the  island  for  carrying  baggage. 

The  soil  of  Dominica  is  a  rich  brown  mold  reeking  with 
dense  vegetation,  and  is  capable  of  growing  any  tropical 
produce ;  and  yet,  while  all  but  60,000  of  the  186,240  acres 
are  crown  lands,  which  the  blacks  would  gladly  till  if  they 
could  acquire  small  holdings,  agriculture  is  rapidly  dying. 
There  were  once  many  fine  sugar-plantations,  especially 
those  on  the  Grand  Savanna,  twelve  miles  from  Eoseau. 
In  the  last  fifteen  years  the  exports  of  sugar,  rum,  and 
molasses  have  fallen  from  seventy-one  to  fifteen  per  cent, 
of  the  total  value  of  the  exports,  which  in  1896  were  valued 
at  $232,750.  In  the  other  islands  the  sugar  industry  has 
managed  to  struggle  along,  but  the  Dominican  planters 
have  practically  given  up  the  struggle.    As  Froude  has 


344  CUBA  AND   PORTO   MCO 

stated,  its  government  has  struck  the  island  with  paraly- 
sis, and  the  contrast  it  presents  with  its  French  neighbors 
from  an  economic  standpoint  cannot  be  flattering  to  Great 
Britain's  pride. 

The  laboring  people  have  largely  migrated  to  Venezuela 
and  to  Cayenne.  At  the  docks  of  both  this  island  and 
St.  Lucia,  England's  other  French  possession,  schooners 
can  always  be  found  loading  with  black  emigrants.  Form- 
erly the  slopes  of  Dominica  were  covered  with  coffee-trees, 
but  this  industry  has  practically  disappeared.  In  1843 
there  was  as  much  as  1,333,000  pounds  of  coffee,  besides 
rum,  sugar,  and  molasses.  The  coffee-culture  even  reached 
2,500,000  pounds  in  1828.  Now  the  whole  of  this  industry 
has  vanished,  except  a  few  trees  set  out  within  recent 
years.  Faint  attempts  are  being  made  to  increase  the  pro- 
duction of  cocoa,  limes,  and  lime-juice,  as  well  as  of  essen- 
tial oils. 

Dominica  was  discovered  and  named  by  Columbus  on  a 
certain  Sunday  in  the  year  1493.  In  1627  the  English 
took  possession  of  the  island,  but  could  not  settle  it  on 
account  of  the  Caribs.  In  1748  the  treaty  of  Aix-la- 
ChapeUe  made  the  island  neutral  territory  between  the 
French  and  English,  but  it  became  a  French  island  in 
population,  although  treaties  have  twice  since  awarded  it 
to  England.  In  the  final  settlement  between  England  and 
France  after  the  imperial  wars.  Great  Britain  followed  the 
advice  of  Rodney  and  retained  this  island,  so  situated 
between  the  French  possessions  of  Guadeloupe  and  Mar- 
tinique that  its  loss  would  greatly  debilitate  the  French 
power  in  the  "West  Indies. 

Dominica  is  a  presidency  within  the  general  government 
of  the  Leeward  Island  federation.  The  president,  or  com- 
missioner, has  an  executive  council  of  seven  members; 
traces  of  the  old  constitutional  rights  still  exist  in  the  fact 
that  there  is  a  legislative  assembly.  The  revenues,  as  in 
all  of  the  English  islands,  do  not  equal  the  expenditures, 
and  taxes  are  increasing. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

THE  ISLAND   OF   MARTINIQUE 

Beauty  of  its  landscape.  A  description  of  the  forests.  History  and 
present  economic  condition.  The  city  of  St.  Pierre.  Botanical 
gardens.     Fort-de-France.     The  fantastic  population. 

WHILE  the  ship  is  still  passing  in  the  shadows  of  lofty 
Dominica,  the  passenger  can  see  the  mornes  of  Mar- 
tinique rising  from  the  vast  expanse  of  sea  to  the  south- 
ward. Martinique  is  the  most  picturesque  in  outline  and 
the  most  interesting  of  all  these  wonderful  Caribbees — the 
central  bead  in  the  great  necklace  that  encircles  the  throat 
of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  the  most  prosperous  of  these 
unhappy  isles.  Some  one  has  giv^n  to  the  island  the  poeti- 
cal name  of  "Les  Pays  des  Revenants,  where  nature's 
unspeakable  spell  bewitches  wandering  souls  like  the  spell 
of  a  Circe." 

This  island  is  second  in  size  only  to  Guadeloupe,  having 
an  area  of  three  hundred  and  eighty-one  square  miles.  It 
is  completely  mountainous,  culminating  in  the  peak  of 
Mount  Pelee,  4450  feet  high.  This  is  usually  wrapped  in 
clouds,  but  now  and  then  it  can  be  seen,  and  its  vast  flanks 
sweep  in  steep  but  graceful  slopes  to  the  sea.  Another 
peak  near  the  south  end  is  3950  feet  high,  while  the  three- 
crested  Carbet,  near  the  northern  coast,  rises  nearly  to  the 
altitude  of  Mount  Pelee. 

Every  inch  of  this  magic  island,  except  where  man  has 
made  temporary  clearings,  is  draped  in  forests— forests 

345 


346  CUBA  AND   PORTO   EICO 

which  cannot  be  described,  photographed,  or  painted.  The 
following  description  by  Dr.  E.  Ruiz  gives  only  a  faint 
idea  of  the  island's  wonders : 

Only  the  sea  can  afford  us  any  term  of  comparison  for  the  attempt 
to  describe  a  grand  hois;  but  even  then  one  must  imagine  the  sea 
on  a  day  of  storm,  suddenly  immobilized  in  the  expression  of  its 
mightiest  fmy.  For  the  summits  of  these  vast  woods  repeat  aU 
the  inequahties  of  the  land  they  cover;  and  these  inequalities 
are  mountains  from  forty-two  to  forty-eight  hundred  feet  in 
height,  and  valleys  of  corresponding  profundity.  All  this  is  hid- 
den, blended  together,  smoothed  over  by  verdure,  in  soft  and 
enormous  undulations,  in  immense  bdlowings  of  foliage.  Only, 
instead  of  a  blue  line  at  the  horizon,  j^ou  have  a  green  line ;  instead 
of  flashings  of  blue,  you  have  flashings  of  green,  and  in  all  the 
tints,  in  all  the  combinations  of  which  green  is  capable— deep 
green,  hght  green,  yeUow-green,  black-green. 

When  your  eyes  grow  weary— if  it  indeed  be  possible  for  them 
to  weary — of  contemplating  the  exterior  of  these  tremendous 
woods,  try  to  penetrate  a  little  into  their  interior.  What  an  inex- 
tricable chaos  it  is!  The  sands  of  a  sea  are  not  more  closely 
pressed  together  than  the  trees  are  here— some  straight,  some 
curved,  some  upright,  some  topphng,  faUen,  or  leaning  against 
one  another,  or  heaped  high  upon  each  other.  Climbing  lianas, 
which  cross  from  one  tree  to  the  other,  like  ropes  passing  from 
mast  to  mast,  help  to  fill  up  all  the  gaps  in  this  treillage ;  and 
parasites— not  timid  parasites  like  ivy  or  like  moss,  but  parasites 
which  are  trees  seK-grafted  upon  trees— dominate  the  primitive 
trunks,  overwhelm  them,  usurp  the  place  of  their  foliage,  and  fall 
back  to  the  ground,  forming  fictitious  weeping-willows.  You  do 
not  find  here,  as  in  the  great  forests  of  the  North,  the  eternal 
monotony  of  birch  and  fir :  this  is  the  kingdom  of  infinite  variety ; 
species  the  most  diverse  elbow  each  other,  interlace,  strangle  and 
devour  each  other;  all  ranks  and  orders  are  confounded,  as  in  a 
human  mob.  The  soft  and  tender  halisier  opens  its  parasol  of 
leaves  beside  the  gommier,  which  is  the  cedar  of  the  colonies ;  you 
see  the  acomat,  the  courbaril,  the  mahogany,  the  tendre-d-caillou, 
the  ironwood ;  .  .  .  but  as  well  enumerate  by  name  aU  the  soldiers 
of  an  army !  Our  oak,  the  balata,  forces  the  palm  to  lengthen 
itself  prodigiously  in  order  to  get  a  few  thin  beams  of  sunhght ; 


THE  ISLAND   OF   MARTINIQUE  347 

for  it  is  as  difficult  here  for  the  poor  trees  to  obtain  one  glance 
from  this  king  of  the  world,  as  for  us,  subjects  of  a  monarchy,  to 
obtain  one  look  from  our  monarch.  As  for  the  soil,  it  is  needless 
to  think  of  looking  at  it :  it  lies  as  far  below  us,  probably,  as  the 
bottom  of  the  sea ;  it  disappeared,  ever  so  long  ago,  under  the 
heaping  of  debris,  under  a  sort  of  manure  that  has  been  accu- 
mulating there  since  the  creation ;  you  sink  into  it  as  into  slime ; 
you  walk  upon  putrefied  trunks,  in  a  dust  that  has  no  name ! 
Here,  indeed,  it  is  that  one  can  get  some  comprehension  of  what 
vegetable  antiquity  signifies :  a  lurid  light  (lurida  lux),  greenish, 
as  wan  at  noon  as  the  light  of  the  moon  at  midnight,  confuses 
forms  and  lends  them  a  vague  and  fantastic  aspect ;  a  mephitic 
humidity  exhales  from  all  parts ;  an  odor  of  death  prevails ;  and  a 
calm  which  is  not  silence  (for  the  ear  fancies  it  can  hear  the  great 
movement  of  composition  and  of  decomposition  perpetually  going 
on)  tends  to  inspire  you  with  that  old  mysterious  horror  which  the 
ancients  felt  in  the  primitive  forests  of  Germany  and  of  Gaul : 

"Arboribus  suus  horror  inest." 

Among  the  trees  are  the  silk-cotton,  species  of  mahogany, 
and  the  caleta,  or  ironwood,  a  very  strong  wood.  The  flora 
is  numerous,  and  closely  related  to  that  of  the  equatorial 
zone  of  South  America.  The  fauna  abounds  in  minor 
reptiles  and  insects.  There  are  various  kinds  of  fish  and 
of  crab.  The  manicon  and  a  certain  lizard  are  eaten.  The 
only  animal  of  note  is  the  vicious  serpent  known  as  the 
fer-de-lance,  which  lurks  in  the  woods,  the  cane- fields,  and 
the  gardens,  and  whose  fatal  bite  is  the  only  thing  upon  the 
island  to  be  dreaded.  This  snake  is  from  four  and  a  half 
to  seven  feet  long,  has  four  fangs,  at  the  root  of  which  is 
secreted  the  virus,  and  rudimentary  fangs  to  take  the 
place  of  the  old  ones.  The  mongoos  was  introduced  ten 
years  ago  to  exterminate  the  fer-de-lance,  but  it  has  not 
been  successful. 

The  climate  shows  three  seasons — cool  in  spring,  hot  and 
dry  in  summer,  and  hot  and  wet  in  autumn  and  part  of 
winter.  The  thermometer  runs  from  76°  to  86°,  rarely 
S8°,  but  there  is  much  humidity.     The  tropical  heat  is 


348  CUBA  AND  PORTO  RICO 

mitigated  by  the  sea-breezes  and  fresh  winds  from  the 
mountains.  Violent  hurricanes  and  earthquakes  some- 
times occur. 

The  island  has  no  deep  harbors,  although  there  are  three 
indentations  which  afford  good  shelter.  The  principal  of 
these  is  the  Bay  of  Fort- de-France,  the  capital  of  the  island, 
and  the  headquarters  of  the  French  admiralty  in  the  "West 
Indies.  On  the  south  side  are  the  Grande  Anse  du  Dia- 
mante and  the  Bay  du  Marin ;  on  the  west  there  are  several 
other  small  coves.  The  eastern  side  is  a  dangerous  shore, 
where  the  Atlantic  breakers  roar  and  foam  in  a  grand  and 
indescribable  surf,  which  prohibits  approach  to  land. 

Martinique  was  originally  settled  by  the  French  in  1665, 
and  with  the  exception  of  twenty-two  years,  between  1794 
and  1816,  when  it  was  held  by  the  English,  it  has  always 
been  French.  It  is  now  a  favored  colony  of  France,  con- 
stituting a  department  of  the  republic,  with  a  governor  and 
excellent  administration,  sending  a  senator  and  two  depu- 
ties to  the  National  Assembly  at  Paris. 

The  imports  for  1896  aggregated  about  $5,721,000,  and 
the  exports  about  $5,358,000.  In  1895-96  the  United 
States  sent  $1,502,332  worth  of  goods  to  the  island.  The 
food- stuffs  of  the  United  States  are  absolutely  necessary 
to  the  life  of  the  colony,  but  the  United  States  takes  almost 
nothing  from  Martinique  in  return.  Sugar,  coffee,  cocoa, 
tobacco,  cotton,  and  rum  are  the  principal  products,  and 
all  the  plantations  producing  these  are  in  a  flourishing 
state  in  comparison  with  those  of  the  adjacent  British 
islands.  There  are  seventeen  large  central  usines,  and 
upward  of  five  hundred  ordinary  sugar-works. 

One  fourth  the  revenue  of  the  island  ($1,342,000)  is 
devoted  to  education.  There  is  a  law  school  at  Fort- de- 
France,  with  seventy-six  students.  There  are  three  secon- 
dary schools,  with  four  hundred  and  eighty- seven  pupils ;  a 
normal  school ;  thirty-eight  primary  schools,  with  ten  thou- 
sand pupils;  and  thirteen  clerical  and  private  schools. 
There  are  also  two  government  hospitals,  military  and 


LANDING,    ST.    PIERRE 


ST.    PIERRE 


MAKTINIQUE 


THE  ISLAND   OF  MABTINIQUE  349 

civil,  and  the  charge  for  a  native  in  the  last  is  twenty-five 
cents  a  day.  At  the  two  prisons  the  discipline  is  very 
mild.  France  also  encourages  agriculture  by  giving  a 
bounty  of  ten  cents  for  every  coffee-  and  cocoa- tree.  This 
is  to  prevent  the  exclusive  cultivation  of  the  sugar-cane. 
There  is  also  a  colonial  bank,  the  object  of  which  is  to  assist 
the  planters ;  experts  determine  the  value  of  crops,  and 
the  bank  advances  one  third  their  value.  If  the  obliga- 
tion is  not  met  by  the  crops,  the  bank  carries  over  its 
claim  on  the  valuation  of  the  next  year's  crop. 

An  excellent  system  of  highways  has  reduced  the  diffi- 
culty of  traveling  across  the  rugged  island.  Transporta- 
tion is  also  carried  on  by  small  coasting-vessels,  although 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  island  this  is  especially  difficult, 
as  the  cargoes  have  to  be  carried  through  the  surf  on  the 
backs  of  men,  or  pushed  by  swimming  negroes  in  small 
boats  through  the  water. 

France  has  always  nurtured  this  colony  with  a  tender, 
loving  hand,  giving  it  the  best  of  administrations,  helping 
it  freely  when  in  distress,  and  protecting  its  industries 
wherever  possible.  In  1896  she  assisted  it  to  the  extent  of 
$659,500. 

The  large  towns  are  St.  Pierre  and  Fort-de-France,  on  the 
leeward  side,  and  Grande  Anse,  on  the  windward  shore. 
St.  Pierre,  on  the  west  side  (population  25,382),  is  the  prin- 
cipal city.  It  is  built  on  cliffs  overlooking  the  bay  of  the 
same  name,  which  is  nothing  more  than  a  very  slight  curve 
in  the  shore-line,  vessels  having  to  anchor  in  the  open 
roadstead.  It  is  a  picturesque  and  beautiful  place,  with 
neat  public  buildings  and  an  interesting  Creole  population. 
The  town  has  a  handsome  cathedral  and  other  public 
buildings.    Hearn  thus  describes  it : 

The  quaintest,  queerest,  and  the  prettiest  withal,  among  West 
Indian  cities ;  all  stone-built  and  stone-flagged,  with  very  narrow 
streets,  wooden  or  zinc  awnings,  and  peaked  roofs  of  red  tile, 
pierced  by  gabled  dormers.    Most  of  the  buildings  are  painted  in 


350  CUBA  AND   POETO   EICO 

a  clear  yellow  tone,  which  contrasts  delightfully  with  the  burning 
blue  ribbon  of  tropical  sky  above ;  and  no  street  is  absolutely  level ; 
nearly  all  of  them  climb  hills,  descend  into  hollows,  curve,  twist, 
describe  sudden  angles.  There  is  everywhere  a  loud  murmur  of 
running  water,  pouring  through  the  deep  gutters  contrived  be- 
tween the  paved  thoroughfare  and  the  absurd  little  sidewalks, 
varying  in  width  from  one  to  three  feet.  The  architecture  is  that 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  reminds  one  of  the  antiquated 
French  quarter  of  New  Orleans.  All  the  tints,  the  forms,  the 
vistas,  would  seem  to  have  been  especially  selected  or  designed  for 
aquarelle  studies.  The  windows  are  frameless  openings  without 
glass ;  some  have  iron  bars ;  all  have  heavy  wooden  shutters  with 
movable  slats,  through  which  light  and  air  can  enter. 

The  town  has  an  aspect  of  great  solidity,  looking  as  if  it 
had  been  hewn  out  of  one  mountain  fragment  instead  of 
constructed  stone  by  stone.  Although  commonly  consist- 
ing of  only  two  stories  and  an  attic,  the  dwellings  have 
walls  three  feet  in  thickness.  There  are  also  many  foun- 
tains throughout  the  city,  carrying  drinking-water,  which 
comes  from  another  source  than  that  of  the  water  in  the 
gutters.     The  main  street  is  known  as  Rue  Victor  Hugo. 

St.  Pierre  has  many  images  and  some  fine  statues.  One 
of  the  latter,  standing  on  a  height  and  easily  visible  from 
the  sea,  is  a  gigantic  "  Christ,"  which  overlooks  the  bay ;  a 
great  white  "  Virgin "  surmounts  the  Morne  d'Orange,  to 
the  south  of  the  city,  while  "  Our  Mother  of  the  Watch " 
overlooks  the  anchorage.  There  is  a  great  white  cathedral 
with  a  superb  chime  of  bells.  Behind  the  city  is  a  beau- 
tiful cemetery. 

The  market  of  St.  Pierre  is  most  picturesque.  It  is  in 
the  middle  of  a  square  surrounding  a  fountain,  and  filled 
with  countrywomen  dressed  in  gorgeous  Oriental  colors, 
selling  their  little  products, — oranges,  bananas,  vanilla- 
beans,  cocoa, — while  the  fishermen  lift  their  boats  bodily 
out  of  the  water  and  convert  them  into  stalls,  where  can  be 
seen  a  most  wonderful  fish  display,  rivaling  in  colors  the 
tints  of  the  rainbow,  and  having  a  hundred  queer  French 


THE  ISLAND   OF  MAKTINIQUE  351 

names,  which  it  is  useless  to  repeat  here,  such  as  the  Bon- 
Die-manie-moin  ("  The  good  God  handled  me  "),  etc. 

A  fine  road  leads  from  St.  Pierre  to  the  village  of  Mon 
Rouge,  situated  two  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  In  the 
village  is  a  shrine  to  the  Virgin,  which  is  visited  by  the 
inhabitants.  Along  this  road  are  many  shrines  and  little 
chapels  with  crucifixes  and  statues,  with  lamps  burning 
before  them.  This  road  leads  by  the  beautiful  botanical 
garden,  and  passes  many  fine  and  solid  stone  bridges. 

The  Jardin  des  Plantes  is  one  of  the  famous  places  of  the 
world,  although  now  somewhat  neglected  and  overrun  by 
the  native  foliage.  One  of  Hearn's  most  beautiful  word- 
pictures  is  that  which  he  gives  of  this  lovely  spot: 

The  Jardin  des  Plantes  is  not  absolutely  secure  from  the  visits 
of  the  serpent;  for  the  trigonocephalus  goes  everywhere,  mount- 
ing to  the  very  summits  of  the  cocoa-palms,  swimming  rivers, 
ascending  walls,  hiding  in  palm-thatched  roofs,  breeding  in  ba- 
gasse-heaps. But,  despite  what  has  been  printed  to  the  contrary, 
this  reptile  fears  man  and  hates  hght;  it  rarely  shows  itself 
voluntarily  during  the  day.  Therefore,  if  you  desu'e  to  obtain 
some  conception  of  the  magnificence  of  Martinique  vegetation, 
without  incurring  the  risk  of  entering  the  high  woods,  you  can  do 
so  by  visiting  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  only  taking  care  to  use 
your  eyes  well  while  climbing  over  fallen  trees  or  picking  your 
way  through  dead  branches.  The  garden  is  less  than  a  mile  from 
the  city,  on  the  slopes  of  the  Morne  Parnasse ;  and  the  primitive 
forest  itself  has  been  utilized  in  the  formation  of  it,  so  that  the 
greater  part  of  the  garden  is  a  primitive  growth.  Nature  has 
accomplished  here  infinitely  more  than  art  of  man  (though  such 
art  has  done  much  to  lend  the  place  its  charm),  and  until  within 
a  very  recent  time  the  result  might  have  been  deemed,  without 
exaggeration,  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  ... 

A  moment  after  passing  the  gate  you  are  in  twilight,  though 
the  sun  may  be  blinding  on  the  white  road  without.  All  about 
you  is  a  green  gloaming,  up  through  which  you  see  immense 
trunks  rising.  ...  As  you  proceed,  the  garden  on  your  right 
deepens  more  and  more  into  a  sort  of  ravine ;  on  your  left  rises 
a  sort  of  f ohage-shrouded  cliff ;  and  all  this  in  a  beautiful  crepus- 


352  CUBA   AND   PORTO   RICO 

cular  dimness,  made  by  the  foliage  of  great  trees  meeting  overhead. 
Palms  rooted  a  hundred  feet  below  you  hold  their  heads  a  hundred 
feet  above  you ;  yet  they  can  barely  reach  the  light.  .  .  .  Farther 
on  the  ravine  widens  to  frame  in  two  tiny  lakes,  dotted  with  arti- 
ficial islands,  which  are  miniatures  of  Martinique,  Guadeloupe, 
and  Dominica.  These  are  covered  with  tropical  plants,  many  of 
which  are  total  strangers  even  here ;  they  are  natives  of  India, 
Senegambia,  Algeria,  and  the  most  eastern  East.  Arborescent 
ferns  of  unfamiliar  elegance  cui've  up  from  path-verge  or  lake- 
brink,  and  the  great  arhre-du-voyageur  outspreads  its  colossal  fan. 
Giant  lianas  droop  down  over  the  way  in  loops  and  festoons ; 
tapering  green  cords,  which  are  creepers  descending  to  take  root, 
hang  everywhere ;  and  parasites  with  stems  thick  as  cables  coil 
about  the  trees  like  boas.  Trunks  shooting  up  out  of  sight,  into 
the  green  wilderness  above,  display  no  bark ;  you  cannot  guess 
what  sort  of  trees  they  are ;  they  are  so  thickly  wrapped  in  creep- 
ers as  to  seem  pillars  of  leaves.  Between  you  and  the  sky,  where 
everything  is  fighting  for  sun,  there  is  an  almost  unbroken  vault 
of  leaves,  a  cloudy  green  confusion  in  which  nothing  particular  is 
distinguishable. 

You  come  to  breaks  now  and  then  in  the  green  steep  to  your 
left — openings  created  for  cascades  pouring  down  from  one  mossed 
basin  of  brown  stone  to  another,  or  gaps  occupied  by  flights  of 
stone  steps,  green  with  mosses,  and  chocolate-colored  by  age. 
These  steps  lead  to  loftier  paths;  and  aU  the  stonework,— the 
grottoes,  bridges,  basins,  terraces,  steps, — are  darkened  by  time  and 
velveted  vntla.  mossy  things.  ...  It  is  of  another  century,  this 
garden ;  special  ordinances  were  passed  concerning  it  during  the 
French  Revolution ;  it  is  very  quaint ;  it  suggests  an  art  spirit  as 
old  as  Versailles,  or  older;  but  it  is  indescribably  beautiful  even 
now. 

...  At  last  you  near  the  end,  to  hear  the  roar  of  falling  water 
—there  is  a  break  in  the  vault  of  green  above  the  bed  of  a  river 
below  you ;  and  at  a  sudden  turn  you  come  in  sight  of  the  cascade. 
Before  you  is  the  Morne  itself ;  and  against  the  burst  of  descend- 
ing light  you  discern  a  precipice-verge.  Over  it,  down  one  green 
furrow  in  its  brow,  tumbles  the  rolling  foam  of  a  cataract,  like 
falling  smoke,  to  be  caught  below  in  a  succession  of  moss-covered 
basins.  The  first  clear  leap  of  the  water  is  nearly  seventy 
feet.  .  .  .  Did  Josephine  ever  rest  upon  that  shadowed  bench 


FILLE  DE  COULEUR 


FRENCH  NEGRESS 


NEGRO   WOMAN 


MULATTO    GIRL 


TYPES   OF   WOMEN,   MARTINIQUE 


THE  ISLAND   OF  MAETINIQUE  353 

near  by  ?  .  .  .  She  knew  'all  these  paths  by  heart ;   surely  they 
must  have  haunted  her  dreams  in  the  aftertime ! 

The  beautiful  garden  is  now  little  more  than  a  wreck  of  what  it 
once  was ;  since  the  fall  of  the  empire  it  has  been  shamefully 
abused  and  neglected.  Some  agronome,  sent  out  to  take  charge  of 
it  by  the  republic,  began  its  destruction  by  cutting  down  acres  of 
enormous  and  magnificent  trees, — including  a  superb  alley  of 
palms,— for  the  purpose  of  experimenting  with  roses.  But  the 
rose-trees  would  not  be  cultivated  there,  and  the  serpents  avenged 
the  demolition  by  making  the  experimental  garden  unsafe  to 
enter;  they  always  swarm  into  underbrush  and  shrubbery  after 
forest-trees  have  been  cleared  away.  .  .  .  Subsequently  the  garden 
was  greatly  damaged  by  storms  and  torrential  rains ;  the  moun- 
tain river  overflowed,  carrying  bridges  away  and  demolishing 
stonework.  No  attempt  was  made  to  repair  these  destructions ; 
but  neglect  alone  would  not  have  ruined  the  loveliness  of  the  place 
—barbarism  was  necessary !  Under  the  present  negro-radical 
regime,  orders  have  been  given  for  the  wanton  destruction  of  trees 
older  than  the  colony  itself;  and  marvels  that  could  not  be  re- 
placed in  a  hundred  generations  were  cut  down  and  converted  into 
charcoal  for  the  use  of  public  institutions. 

The  capital,  Fort-de-France,  formerly  Fort  Eoyal,  is 
situated  on  a  beautiful  but  shallow  bay  near  the  south  end 
of  the  west  side  of  the  island.  The  town,  though  secon- 
dary in  commercial  importance  to  St.  Pierre,  is  the  military 
center  and  arsenal  of  the  French  Antilles,  the  rendezvous 
of  the  navy,  the  terminus  of  the  French  transatlantic 
steamships  and  West  Indian  cable  system.  It  was  half 
ruined  by  an  earthquake  in  1839,  and  nearly  cop^umed  by 
a  fire  in  1890.  After  the  last  event  the  inhabitants  offered 
a  bounty  of  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  the  old  buildings 
to  help  rebuild,  and  eight  hundred  thousand  dollars  has 
been  thus  spent.  Among  the  several  interesting  statues 
adorning  its  public  gardens  the  most  noted  is  that  of  the 
Empress  Josephine,  erected  by  the  people  of  the  island  in 
honor  of  her  nativity. 

Throughout  the  island  there  are  many  little  villages, 
such  as  Le  Montine,  Petit  Bourg,  Le  Francois.    Grande 

23 


354  CUBA   AND   PORTO   EICO 

Anse  is  situated  across  the  high  mountain  ranges,  and  is 
reached  by  a  picturesque  road  from  St.  Pierre,  which  rises 
into  the  higher  passes,  and  is  shaded  by  tree-ferns,  accom- 
panied by  graceful  bamboo  and  arborescent  grass.  It  is 
in  a  region  of  black  stones,  out  of  which  the  houses  are 
built.  Black  volcanic  boulders  dot  the  hillsides,  and  even 
the  sands  of  the  beach  are  black,  and  full  of  valuable 
magnetic  iron.  The  village  is  a  small  place,  principally 
noted  for  the  wonderful  expertness  of  its  men  in  swim- 
ming the  breakers,  and  for  the  beauty  of  its  female  por- 
teuses— young  girls  who  carry  burdens  upon  their  heads. 
At  Diamond  Rock  there  is  the  tomb  of  the  commander  of 
one  of  the  English  ships,  and  the  remains  of  the  cistern 
which  furnished  the  English  with  water  while  the  rock  was 
fortified  by  them  in  1844. 

Not  less  interesting  than  the  natural  features  are  the  in- 
habitants of  this  island,  distinguished  by  beauty,  thrift,  and 
a  remarkable  and  peculiar  individuality.  In  1895  they 
numbered  nearly  five  hundred  to  the  square  mile,  aggre- 
gating 187,692  people,  most  of  whom,  except  1307,  were 
either  blacks  or  members  of  that  remarkable  mixed  race 
which  distinguishes  the  island.  The  mixed  populations 
show  every  variety  of  color  and  type, — mulattos,  copre, 
chabin,  and  mates, — but  they  are  generally  healthy  and 
thriving.  Traces  of  Caribbean  blood  are  seen  in  their 
color,  physiognomy,  and  physical  characteristics.  Hearn 
thus  describes  the  population  of  Martinique: 

.  Fantastic,  astonishing— a  population  of  the  "Arabian  Nights." 
It  is  many*colored,  but  the  general  dominant  tint  is  yellow.  .  .  . 
Straight  as  palms,  and  supple  and  tall,  these  colored  women  and 
men  impress  one  powerfully  by  their  dignified  carriage  and  easy 
elegance  of  movement.  All,  or  nearly  all,  are  without  shoes.  .  .  . 
Perhaps  the  most  novel  impression  of  all  is  that  produced  by  the 
singularity  and  brilliancy  of  certain  of  the  women's  costumes. 
Some  of  these  fashions  suggest  the  Orient ;  they  offer  beautiful 
audacities  of  color  contrast ;  and  the  full-dress  coiffure,  above  all, 
is  most  striking.     It  is  an  immense  Madras  handkerchief,  which  is 


THE  ISLAND   OF  MAETINIQUE  355 

folded  about  the  head  with  admirable  art,  like  a  turban;  one 
bright  end,  pushed  through  at  the  top  in  front,  being  left  sticking 
up  like  a  plume.  Then  this  turban,  always  fuU  of  bright  canary- 
color,  is  fastened  with  golden  brooches,  one  in  front  and  one  at 
either  side.  As  for  the  remainder  of  the  dress,  it  is  simple  enough : 
an  embroidered,  low-cut  chemise  with  sleeves ;  a  skirt,  or  jupe, 
very  long  behind,  but  caught  up  and  fastened  in  front  below  the 
breasts,  so  as  to  bring  the  hem  everywhere  to  a  level  with  the  end 
of  the  long  chemise ;  and  finally  a  foulard,  or  silken  kerchief,  thrown 
over  the  shoulders.  These  jupes  and  foulards,  however,  are  ex- 
quisite in  pattern  and  color :  bright  crimson,  bright  yellow,  bright 
blue,  bright  green,  lilac,  violet,  rose,  sometimes  mingled  in 
plaidings  or  checkerings  or  stripings ;  black  with  orange,  sky-blue 
with  purple.  And  whatever  be  the  colors  of  the  costume,  which 
vary  astonishingly,  the  coiffure  must  be  yellow— brilliant,  flashing 
yellow;  the  turban  is  certain  to  have  yellow  stripes  or  yellow 
squares.  To  this  display  add  the  effect  of  costly  and  curious 
jewelry :  immense  ear-rings,  each  pendant  being  formed  of  five  gold 
cylinders  joined  together,  cylinders  sometimes  two  inches  long 
and  an  inch  at  least  in  circumference ;  a  necklace  of  one  or  many 
rows  of  large,  hollow  gold  beads,  called  collier-choiix. 

But  few  are  thus  richly  attired ;  the  greater  number  of  the 
women,  carrying  burdens  on  their  heads,— peddling  vegetables, 
cakes,  fruit,  ready-cooked  food,  from  door  to  door, — are  very  sim- 
ply dressed  in  a  single  plain  robe  of  vivid  colors  {douiUette),  reach- 
ing from  neck  to  feet,  and  made  with  a  train,  but  generally  girded 
well  up  so  as  to  sit  close  to  the  figure  and  leave  the  lower  limbs 
partly  bare  and  perfectly  free.  These  women  can  walk  all  day 
long  up  and  down  hill  in  the  hot  sun,  without  shoes,  carrying 
loads  of  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  on 
their  heads ;  and  if  their  little  stock  sometimes  fails  to  come  up  to 
the  accustomed  weight,  stones  are  added  to  make  it  heavy  enough. 
With  the  women  the  load  is  very  seldom  steadied  with  the  hand. 
The  head  remains  almost  motionless ;  but  the  black,  quick,  pier- 
cing eyes  flash  into  every  window  and  doorway  to  watch  for  a 
customer's  signal.  These  women  also  carry  the  produce  across 
mountain  from  plantation  to  seaport. 

Cornilliac  ascribes  the  wonderful  beauty  of  the  Mar- 
tinique women  to  the  admixture  of  Carib  blood  with  that 


356  CUBA  AND  POETO  RICO 

of  the  Europeans  and  blacks.  Both  men  and  women  are 
often  so  perfect  anatomically  that  the  artist  wishing  to 
create  a  "  Mercury  "  or  "  Venus  "  need  only  take  a  cast  of 
such  a  body,  without  making  one  modification  from  neck 
to  heel. 

There  is  great  love  of  the  mother-country  among  all 
classes.  This  is  due  to  the  liberty  of  the  press  and  politi- 
cal freedom.  Laborers  in  Martinique  receive  wages  of  from 
fifteen  to  nineteen  cents  a  day;  house-servants  $1.52  to 
$2.87  a  month;  mechanics  seventy-six  to  ninety-five 
cents  a  day ;  and  bookkeepers  from  $43  to  $55  a  month. 
The  women  do  most  of  the  hard  work. 


^ 

^^ES^^^  V- 

>^     ■*^  "I- -r-__4'..     ' 

-:^jjPjKJ,t*«»    ■  •'^ 

O 

PLANTATIONS    NEAR    SOUTH    END 


ONE    OF   THE    PITONS 


ST.  LUCIA 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 

ST.  LUCIA,  ST.  VINCENT,  THE  GRENADINES,  AND  GRENADA 

England's  stronghold  in  the  West  Indies.     The  Pitons.    Agricultural  de- 
pression.   Recollections  of  Rodney. 

ST.  LUCIA  was  the  Ste.  Alomse_of_  the  French.  This 
"  wildly  beautiful  island,"  as  it  is  called  by  Montgom- 
ery Martin,  lies  twenty-four  miles  south  of  Martinique  and 
twenty- one  miles  northeast  of  St.  Vincent.  It  has  the  same 
rugged  aspect  as  the  other  large  Caribbees,  but  is  noted  as 
one  of  the  loveliest,  if  not  the  loveliest,  in  the  chain  of 
islands  to  which  it  belongs.  It  is  forty-two  miles  long, 
twenty  miles  broad,  has  a  coast-line  of  one  hundred  and 
fifty  miles,  and  embraces  two  hundred  and  thirty-three 
square  miles.  Like  Guadeloupe,  Montserrat,  Dominica, 
and  Martinique,  it  is  a  mass  of  high  mornes,  with  steep 
bluffs  along  the  sea  and  steep  acclivities  leading  up  to  the 
cloud-wrapped  summits,  the  highest  of  which.  La  Sou- 
f riere,  at  the  south  end  of  the  island,  is  four  thousand  feet 
in  altitude.  Near  by  there  is  another  mountain,  the  Piton 
des  Canaris,  three  thousand  feet  high.  Other  high  sum- 
mits occur  along  the  entire  length  of  the  island,  but  are 
always  wrapped  in  a  silky  veil  of  mist.  The  so-called 
"  crater "  of  the  Soufriere  is  about  one  thousand  feet  up 
the  mountain.  It  ijs  composed  of  old  volcanic  tuff  and 
cinder,  coated  with  sulphur,  and  contains  a  few  boiling 
springs. 
Of  all  the  examples  of  the  wonderful  acute  configuration 

357 


358  CUBA   AND   POKTO   RICO 

of  the  Caribbees,  the  Pitons,  at  the  southern  end  of  St. 
Lucia,  are  the  most  remarkable.  These  are  two  immense 
pointed  peaks  which  rise  from  the  sea-level  like  great 
dragons'  teeth  to  2720  and  2680  feet  respectively,  seeming 
as  vertical  as  the  peaks  of  the  Matterhorn.  Their  slopes 
are  fully  sixty  degrees,  and  they  are  covered  densely  by 
vegetation.  These  peculiar  forms  are  not  craters,  but  may 
be  old  volcanic  stocks.  The  beautiful  coves  and  bays  are 
also  very  picturesque ;  dense  forests,  fertile  valleys,  ver- 
dant plains,  frowning  precipices,  lively  rivers,  and  deep 
ravines,  the  whole  covered  by  a  perfect  mass  of  deciduous 
vegetation,  make  up  the  wonderful  landscape. 

The  vegetation  and  climate  are  very  similar  to  those  of 
Martinique.  In  fact,  St.  Lucia,  Martinique,  Dominica, 
Basse-Terre  (Guadeloupe),  and  Montserrat  are  all  so  much 
alike  in  configuration,  climate,  and  vegetation,  that  I  can- 
not recall  a  single  distinguishing  feature  on  any  of  them. 
They  constitute  the  summits  of  a  continuous  mountain— 
a  great  sierra  made  up  of  the  same  masses  of  old  volcanic 
tuffs  and  basalts,  just  as  one  of  the  long  sierras  of  our 
Southwest  deserts  would  appear  if  its  lower  passes  were 
flooded. 

St.  Lucia,  like  Dominica  and  Martinique,  is  a  French 
island  which  has  several  times  passed  into  English  pos- 
session, finally  becoming  a  permanent  holding  of  the  Eng- 
lish after  the  imperial  wars,  on  account  of  its  excellent 
harbor.  It  is  now  under  the  general  government  of  the 
Windward  Islands,  with  a  local  legislative  council,  and  is 
the  strictest  pattern  of  a  crown  colony,  which  has  the 
usual  excellent  administrative  features,  accompanied  by 
high  taxation  and  economic  decay.  There  are  thirty- 
seven  primary  schools  in  the  island,  but  a  great  drawback 
to  educational  progress  is  the  French  patois  spoken  by  the 
natives. 

The  soil,  like  that  of  all  the  other  Caribbees,  is  rich 
beyond  description ;  one  third  of  the  island  is  covered  with 
superb  forests,  inhabited,  like  those  of  Martinique,  by  the 


ST.  LUCIA,  ST.  VINCENT,  THE  GEENADINES,  AND  GEENADA     359 

deadly  fer-de-lance.  Agriculturally  St.  Lucia  shows  the 
same  depression  everywhere  visible  in  the  English  islands. 
The  sugar  industry  has  almost  been  eliminated  within  the 
last  ten  years.  Only  a  small  portion  of  the  total  cultivable 
acreage  is  under  cultivation.  The  forty-six  thousand 
black  inhabitants,  who  are  French  in  speech  and  habit,  live 
largely  on  such  pickings  as  they  can  gather  from  the  coal- 
ing of  ships,  public  works,  and  their  little  yam-patches. 
Many  of  them  leave  the  island  to  seek  employment  in 
Cayenne  and  other  places.  The  revenues  are  not  sufficient 
to  meet  the  expenditures,  and  the  high  taxes  are  already 
more  than  the  people  can  meet.  Sugar-planting  is  dying 
out,  and  this  beautiful  island,  once  as  fair  as  Martinique, 
will  soon  sink  into  the  economic  condition  of  Dominica. 

St.  Lucia  is  chiefly  noted  for  possessing  the  only  deep 
harbor,  except  St.  Thomas  and  Trinidad,  in  the  Lesser 
Antilles,  and  for  being  the  only  one  of  the  Caribbee  Islands 
which  has  a  completely  protected  landlocked  basin,  where 
ships  can  go  alongside  a  dock.  This  is  an  oblong  bay 
surrounded  on  all  sides  by  high  hills,  upon  which  England 
is  mounting  some  of  the  strongest  batteries  in  the  world. 
The  town  of  Castries  is  a  small  place  built  on  made  gi'ound 
on  the  interior  side  of  the  harbor,  at  the  foot  of  its  steep 
surrounding  hills.  It  looks  quite  diminutive  in  compari- 
son with  the  overtowering  natural  surroundings.  Its 
population  seems  to  consist  mostly  of  negro  women,  who 
coal  the  passing  ships.  There  is  a  handsome  market-house, 
a  pretty  botanical  garden,  and  a  comfortable  reading-room 
and  library.  The  whites  all  live  upon  the  highlands 
around  the  harbor,  the  low  grounds  being  considered  un- 
healthful. 

For  the  past  few  years  England  has  been  making  a  most 
formidable  naval  station  here,  and  the  American  Jingo 
press  has  often  called  attention  to  it.  Castries  is  also  the 
chief  coaling-station  of  the  British  navy  in  the  West  Indies, 
and  the  imperial  troops  are  to  be  concentrated  here  and  in 
Jamaica. 


360  CUBA   AND    PORTO   KICO 

The  waters  off  this  island  are  famous  to  all  Englishmen 
as  the  scene  of  what  they  consider  one  of  the  greatest  bat- 
tles of  all  naval  histoiy,  although  they  have  never  given  it 
a  name  other  than  "  Rodney's  victory."  As  our  ship  passed 
by  these  waters,  every  Briton  hung  over  the  rail  with  in- 
tense interest,  recalling  this  great  conflict  which  took  place 
on  April  12, 1782,  between  Admiral  Rodney  and  the  French 
admiral  De  Grasse.  This  battle,  which  is  fully  described 
in  Captain  Mahan's  book,  was  really  one  of  the  decisive 
events  of  the  world's  history,  for  it  not  only  reduced  the 
French  to  a  secondary  position  in  the  West  Indies,  but 
established  England's  great  position  as  a  modern  sea- 
power.  Furthermore,  it  saved  Jamaica  to  England,  and 
the  circumstances  leading  up  to  it  indirectly  freed  the 
American  colonies,  for  had  not  England  been  so  occupied 
during  the  American  Revolution  with  her  struggles  against 
the  French  in  the  West  Indies,  which  were  then  considered 
of  so  much  greater  value  than  the  American  colonies,  there 
is  little  doubt  that  our  own  cause  would  have  been  lost. 
In  the  English  mind  this  victory,  which  occun'ed  simul- 
taneously with  the  surrender  of  Yorktown,  completely 
overshadowed  the  latter  event. 

In  the  peace  that  followed  St.  Lucia  became  a  British 
possession,  but  the  erstwhile  French  citizens  made  things 
lively  for  their  new  masters.  In  a  revolution  they  recov- 
ered the  whole  of  the  island  with  the  exception  of  two  mil- 
itary posts,  and  it  required  Lord  Abercrombie  with  twelve 
thousand  British  soldiers  to  restore  quiet. 

The  whole  southern  half  of  the  Caribbean  circle  is  Eng- 
lish,— St.  Lucia,  St.  Vincent,  and  Grenada  are  three  of  a 
kind, — while  the  little  Grenadines  are  largely  uninhabited 
islets. 

It  has  been  said  that  four  islands  among  the  Caribbees 
realize  one's  ideals — Guadeloupe,  Dominica,  Martinique, 
and  St.  Vincent.  "The  first  is  grand  and  gloomy;  the 
second  is  somber  in  its  mountains,  but  breaks  out  into 
smiling  tracts  of  cultivated  land ;  the  third  combines  the 


GEORGETOWN 


KINGSTOWN 

ST.  \'INCENT 


ST.  LUCIA,  ST.  VINCENT,  THE  GRENADINES,  AND  GRENADA     361 

features  of  the  first  two  and  adds  the  element  of  a  large 
and  picturesque  population ;  while  St.  Vincent  has  all  the 
natural  wonders  and  beauties  of  the  other  three,  and  a  cer- 
tain air  of  delicate  culture  which  is  entirely  its  own." 
Furthermore,  it  is  an  agreeable  place  to  spend  a  week  or 
two. 

St.  Vincent  is  a  single  island  with  no  outlying  rocks  or 
islets.  It  is  seventeen  miles  long  and  ten  miles  broad,  with 
an  area  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-one  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  nearly  fifty  thousand  people.  A  ridge  of 
mountains  passes  along  the  middle  through  its  whole 
length,  the  highest  of  which,  the  Soufriere,  is  at  the  north 
extremity.  Its  scenery  is  slightly  different  from  that  of  the 
other  Caribbees.  There  are  more  extensive  open  views, — 
slopes  and  valleys, — while  vast  areas  of  more  recent  cinder 
and  lava  indicate  that  later  volcanic  action  has  taken  place. 

The  island  culminates  in  the  vast  crater  of  Morne  Garon, 
which  was  the  scene  of  a  tremendous  eruption  in  1812, 
when  the  earthquakes  which  for  two  years  had  terrified 
the  West  Indian  region  and  the  South  American  coast  cul- 
minated in  an  explosion  which  was  a  most  devastating  and 
far-reaching  cataclysm,  being  rivaled  within  recent  years 
only  by  the  explosion  of  Krakatau,  in  the  Straits  of  Sunda. 
In  Caracas  ten  thousand  people  were  buried  in  a  single 
moment,  and  ruin  was  wrought  along  the  entire  line  of  the 
Andes  by  earthquakes  accompanying  the  event.  The 
Soufriere  of  St.  Vincent  vomited  vast  clouds  of  dust,  which 
darkened  the  sun  for  an  entire  day  and  spread  over  a  hun- 
dred miles  of  sea  and  land.  This  eruption  changed  the 
configuration  of  the  island  and  destroyed  its  eastern  end. 
The  present  crater,  formed  at  that  time,  is  a  half-mile  in 
diameter  and  five  hundred  feet  deep,  and  is  now  a  beauti- 
ful l^ke  walled  in  by  ragged  cliffs  to  a  height  of  eight  hun- 
dred feet.  Since  1812  the  volcanic  forces  have  been  quies- 
cent, and  nature  has  repaired  the  ruin  and  made  the  island 
more  beautiful  than  ever. 

Kingstown,  the  capital,  with  about  eight  thousand  in- 


362  CUBA  AND   PORTO   EICO 

habitants,  is  on  the  southwest  side,  the  town  stretching 
along  a  lovely  bay,  with  mountains  gradually  rising  behind 
in  the  form  of  an  amphitheater.  Its  red-roofed  houses  and 
a  few  fine  stone  structures  show  picturesquely  through  the 
palm- groves.  Behind  these  are  the  governor's  house  and 
botanical  buildings,  overlooking  the  town.  Three  streets, 
broad  and  lined  with  good  houses,  front  the  water.  On 
these  are  stone  buildings  occupied  as  a  police  station  and 
government  stores.  There  are  many  other  intersecting 
highways,  some  of  which  lead  back  to  the  foot-hills,  from 
which  good  roads  ascend  the  mountains. 

In  St.  Vincent  we  meet  the  same  story  of  the  decay  of 
the  sugar  industry;  here  it  is  on  the  verge  of  extinction. 
No  improvements  have  been  introduced  in  the  manufacture, 
and  the  canes  have  in  recent  years  suffered  severely  from 
disease.  No  industry  has  taken  its  place.  Arrowroot  is 
next  in  importance  to  sugar,  but  its  price  has  also  declined, 
adding  to  the  depression.  It  is  grown  in  fields  which  are 
planted  like  Indian  corn  when  sown  for  fodder.  When 
matured  it  is  dug  up  and  taken  to  a  mill,  where  the  roots 
are  broken  off,  ground,  washed,  and  strained,  and  the  mass 
allowed  to  settle  for  a  few  days.  The  product  is  then 
placed  on  wire  frames  with  different-sized  meshes  to  dry. 
It  gradually  sifts  down  through  these,  and  is  then  barreled 
for  shipment.  In  recent  years  it  has  brought  about  five 
dollars  a  barrel,  or  eight  cents  per  pound;  formerly  it 
brought  from  forty  to  sixty  cents. 

Wages  are  very  low  and  constantly  being  reduced,  and 
there  is  a  lamentable  want  of  employment  even  at  the 
price  of  less  than  a  shilling  a  day  for  able-bodied  men, 
who  are  constantly  emigrating,  leaving  the  women  and 
children  to  shift  for  themselves.  There  are  few  Caribs 
remaining  in  St.  Vincent,  the  remnant  of  a  large  number 
that  lived  here  until  1796,  when  Great  Britain  deported 
five  thousand  of  them  to  the  coast  of  Honduras. 

Between  St.  Vincent  and  Grenada,  instead  of  open  water, 
we  find  several  hundred  little  rocky  islands,  all  disposed 


MARKET 

ST.  VINCENT 


ST.  LUCIA,  ST.  VINCENT,  THE  GKENADINES,  AND  GEENADA     363 

in  the  trend  of  the  larger  Caribbees,  but  offering  an  end- 
less variety  in  shape  and  configuration.  Kingsley  has 
summarized  their  essential  features  as  follows : 

On  leaving  St.  Vincent,  the  track  lies  past  the  Grenadines.  For 
sixty  mUes,  long  low  islands  of  quaint  forms  and  euphonious 
names— Becquia,  Mustique,  Canonau,  Carriacou,  lie  de  Rh6ne— 
rise  a  few  hundred  feet  out  of  the  unfathomable  sea,  bare  of  wood, 
edged  with  cliffs  and  streaks  of  red  and  gray  rock,  resembhng, 
says  Dr.  Davy,  the  Cyclades  of  the  Grecian  Archipelago;  their 
number  is  counted  at  three  hundred.  The  largest  of  them  all  is 
not  eight  thousand  acres  in  extent,  the  smallest  about  six  hundred. 
A  quiet,  prosperous  race  of  little  yeomen,  besides  a  few  planters, 
dwell  there;  the  latter  feeding  and  exporting  much  stock,  the 
former  much  provisions,  and  both  troubhng  themselves  less  than  of 
yore  with  sugar  and  cotton.  They  build  coasting- vessels,  and  trade 
with  them  to  the  larger  islands ;  and  they  might  be,  it  is  said,  if 
they  chose,  much  richer  than  they  are— if  that  be  any  good  to  them. 

The  steamer  does  not  stop  at  any  of  these  little  sea-hermitages, 
so  that  we  could  only  watch  their  shores ;  and  they  were  worth 
watching.  They  had  been,  plainly,  sea-gnawn  for  countless  ages, 
and  may,  at  some  remote  time,  have  been  all  joined  in  one  long 
ragged  chine  of  hills,  the  highest  about  one  thousand  feet.  They 
seem  to  be,  for  the  most  part,  made  up  of  marls  and  hmestones, 
with  trap-dikes  and  other  igneous  matters  here  and  there.  And 
one  could  not  help  entertaining  the  fancy  that  they  were  a  speci- 
men of  what  the  other  islands  were  once,  or  at  least  would  have 
been  now,  had  not  each  of  them  had  its  volcanic  vents  to  pUe  up 
hard  lavas  thousands  of  feet  aloft,  above  the  marine  strata,  and  so 
consolidate  each  ragged  chine  of  submerged  mountain  into  one 
solid  conical  island,  like  St.  Vincent  at  their  northern  end,  and  at 
their  southern  end  that  beautiful  Grenada  to  which  we  were  fast 
approaching,  and  which  we  reached,  on  our  outward  voyage,  at 
nightfall,  running  in  toward  a  narrow  gap  of  moon-lit  cliffs,  be- 
yond which  we  could  discern  the  hghts  of  a  town. 

The  beautiful  island  of  Grenada  is  the  most  southern  of 
the  Caribbean  chain.  It  is  eighteen  miles  long  and  seven 
miles  broad,  and  contains  one  hundred  and  thirty-three 
square  miles— two  more  than  St.  Vincent.  It  is  surmounted 


364  CUBA  AND   POETO   EICO 

by  lofty  volcanic  craters,  among  which  is  a  picturesque 
lake  more  than  two  miles  in  circumference  and  thirty-two 
hundred  feet  above  the  sea.  The  capital,  St.  George,  has 
a  fine  harbor  with  a  walled  fort,  and  pretty  houses  and 
churches  situated  on  the  hillsides.  In  the  northwest  are 
successive  piles  of  conical  hills  or  continuous  ridges  cov- 
ered with  vast  forest-trees  and  brushwood.  There  are 
many  fertile  valleys  interspersed  with  numerous  rivulets. 

Grenada  is  the  most  British  of  all  the  British  islands, 
for,  although  owned  by  France  until  1762,  it  has  flown  the 
English  flag  since  then.  The  island  is  the  capital  or  head- 
quarters of  the  Windward  government,  which  comprises 
the  colonies  of  St.  Lucia,  St.  Vincent,  the  Grenadines,  and 
Grenada,  and  has  all  the  charms  of  British  official  colo- 
nial society.  Here  also  we  hear  the  cry  of  the  good  old 
days  that  are  no  more,  and  the  lamentations  of  the  decay 
that  is.  Sugar,  for  which  the  island  was  once  famous,  is 
now  grown  only  in  sufficient  quantities  to  supply  the 
natives  with  cane  to  chew  or  rum  to  drink,  less  than  one 
hundred  thousand  dollars'  worth  being  exported  annually. 
Cocoa  is  the  chief  product,  but  this  is  falling  off  in  price. 
The  expenditures  are  increasing  on  account  of  enlarged 
educational  institutions  and  public  works — roads,  bridges, 
and  water- works,  which  the  English  must  always  have. 

The  population  in  1891  numbered  fifty-four  thousand, 
or  four  hundred  and  fifteen  to  the  square  mile,  of  whom  at 
least  four  fifths  are  a  contented  lot  of  negro  peasantry, 
owning  their  own  homes  and  growing  their  little  crops  of 
yams  and  sweet  potatoes.  Like  St.  Vincent,  it  presents 
more  open  country  interspersed  between  the  rugged  moun- 
tains than  is  found  in  the  northern  Caribbees,  and  is  of  a 
more  recent  volcanic  character.  The  English  will  tell  you 
that  it  is  the  loveliest  of  all  the  islands ;  but  this  is  told  of 
them  all. 

The  island  is  a  delightful  spot,  and  the  English  proprie- 
tors a  hospitable  people.  If  the  reader  should  visit  the 
tropics,  a  brief  stay  here  would  be  well  rewarded. 


ST.  GEORGE'S    HARBOR 


1    ^              1, 

^■Hi^^lH 

.  ■     ,„iff #  ■  ■ 

ST.  GEORGE 


GKENADA 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 

THE  SOUTH  AMEKICAN  ISLANDS 

Trinidad,  Tobago,  and  Curasao.  The  peculiar  geographical  features  of 
Trinidad.  Port  of  Spain.  Political  conditions.  Population  and  peo- 
ple. The  island  of  Tobago.  Curasao,  the  capital  of  the  Dutch  West 
Indies. 

GRENADA  is  the  most  southern  of  the  Caribbean  chain. 
The  other  islands  of  the  Lesser  Antilles  to  the  south- 
ward, and  adjacent  to  the  north  coast  of  South  America, 
are,  in  their  natural  features,  fragments  of  the  latter  con- 
tinent which  have  become  detached  from  the  mainland  by 
the  processes  of  time.  They  are  continental  in  their  diver- 
sity, and,  were  they  not  insular  in  outline,  they  would  be 
considered  as  belonging  to  the  South  American  rather  than 
the  West  Indian  realm.  Only  a  few  words  can  be  said 
concerning  them. 

These  islands  succeed  one  another  in  elongated  arrange- 
ment like  those  of  the  other  greater  groups,  but  trend  in 
an  east-and-west  direction,  parallel  to  the  adjacent  con- 
tinental coast,  extending  through  seven  degrees  of  longi- 
tude, from  Tobago,  on  the  east,  to  the  rocky  islets  known  as 
the  Monks,  at  the  entrance  to  the  great  Gulf  of  Maracaibo, 
on  the  west. 

Of  this  group  Trinidad  is  by  far  the  largest  and  most 
interesting,   although  Tobago,  Margarita,   Tortuga,  Los 

365 


366  CUBA  AND   POBTO  EICO 

Roques,  Buen  Ayi'e,  Curasao,  and  Oruba  are  of  consider- 
able size,  each  possessing  an  area  only  a  little  less  than 
that  of  the  average  Caribbee.  Here,  too,  is  multiplicity  of 
nationalities.  Tobago  and  Trinidad  are  British;  Buen 
Ayre  and  Curasao  Dutch ;  and  most  of  the  others,  which 
are  not  worthy  of  further  mention,  are  Venezuelan. 

Trinidad  lies  just  south  of  the  eastern  end  of  the  main 
chain  of  South  American  islands.  It  is  separated  from  the 
main  continent  by  the  Gulf  of  Paria,  which  has  two  outlets 
on  the  south  and  northwest,  known  as  the  Mouth  of  the 
Serpent  and  the  Mouth  of  the  Dragon  respectively,  which 
are  only  a  few  miles  wide,  and  across  which  the  mainland 
is  plainly  visible.  Trinidad  is  merely  a  severed  fragment 
of  the  mainland,  having  exactly  the  same  relations  to  it 
that  Long  Island  has  to  the  adjacent  coast  of  New  York 
and  New  England. 

The  island  is  quadrangular  in  outline  and  embraces  an 
area  of  1754  square  miles — nearly  as  large  as  all  the  Carib- 
bee Islands  combined.  The  volcanic  appearance  which 
marks  the  configuration  of  the  Caribbee  Islands  is  missing, 
and  Trinidad  resembles  the  continent.  It  is  crossed  in 
east-and-west  directions  by  great  mountain  ranges  with 
rivers  and  lakes,  and  is  diversified  by  beautiful  plains  and 
valleys.  On  the  east  it  faces  the  Atlantic,  the  straight 
north  shore  lies  against  the  Caribbean  Sea,  while  to  the 
west  there  is  the  great  bulb- shaped  Gulf  of  Paria.  These 
waters,  instead  of  being  bright  blue,  are  a  muddy  yellow, 
fiUed  with  sediments  from  the  adjacent  land.  There  are  a 
few  low  wooded  islands  in  this  gulf.  The  equatorial  cur- 
rent, as  it  passes  from  the  Atlantic  into  the  Gulf,  rushes 
with  great  velocity  through  the  Serpent's  Mouth. 

Trinidad  has  been  called  Great  Britain's  loveliest  West 
Indian  colony,  but  there  is  nothing  West  Indian  about  it. 
It  is  thoroughly  South  American.  The  flora,  rocks,  ani- 
mals, and  geology  all  partake  of  the  adjacent  Cumana 
peninsula,  and  it  should  be  considered  in  the  same  cate- 
gory as  British  Guiana. 


PUBLIC    OFFICES 


PORT   OF   SPAIN 

TRINIDAD 


THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN  ISLANDS  367 

*  The  capital  and  chief  city  of  the  island  is  Port  of  Spain, 
situated  on  a  beautiful  harbor  facing  the  Grulf  of  Paria, 
which,  were  it  not  for  its  shallowness,  would  hold  the 
shipping  of  the  world.  The  larger  vessels  are  loaded  by 
lighters.  It  was  into  this  harbor  that  Columbus  first  came, 
when  he  named  the  island  Trinidad,  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow 
he  had  made  to  the  Holy  Trinity.  The  city  is  elevated 
about  four  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  from 
which  it  is  some  six  miles  distant,  and  is  a  pretty,  hilly 
town  of  about  twenty  thousand  inhabitants.  It  is  a  curi- 
ous combination  of  English,  French,  and  Spanish  build- 
ings, arranged  on  broad  streets  and  with  many  squares  or 
plazas.  Street-cars  traverse  the  chief  avenues.  The  city 
has  been  made  somewhat  unattractive  by  numerous  fires ; 
some  of  these  have  been  very  extensive,  especially  those 
of  1884  and  1891.  The  governor's  house,  as  in  all  the 
English  colonies,  stands  in  large  grounds  out  of  town,  at 
the  foot  of  the  mountains.  It  is  surrounded  by  beautiful 
botanical  gardens,  which  are  especially  rich  in  nutmeg-, 
cinnamon-,  and  other  spice-trees,  and  every  known  species 
of  palm-tree.  Immense  ceibas,  almonds,  and  orange-trees 
also  ornament  the  grounds. 

It  is  said  that,  owing  to  its  exposure  to  the  combined 
breezes  of  the  sea  and  mountain,  with  a  most  delicious 
climate,  Port  of  Spain  is  a  very  healthful  place,  while  its 
situation  in  a  rich  and  fertile  country,  its  extended  views, 
the  beauty  of  its  women,  and  the  hospitality  of  its  inhabi- 
tants, make  it  a  most  attractive  town.  To  this  place 
come  eighteen  steamers  a  month  from  England,  six  from 
the  United  States  (four  steamers  of  the  French  line,  two 
of  the  Quebec),  and  two  from  Holland ;  and  there  are  seven 
steamers  to  Venezuela.  There  is  also  an  extensive  carry- 
ing-trade between  Port  of  Spain  and  Venezuela.  Gold 
and  other  products  of  the  country  are  reshipped  from  Trini- 
dad to  Europe,  and  goods  from  Europe  are  sent  to  Trini- 
dad for  distribution  in  Venezuela. 

There  are  several  smaller  places,  Princestown  and  San 


368  CUBA   AND   PORTO   RICO     ' 

Fernando  being  the  most  notable.  La  Brea  is  the  shipping- 
place  of  the  Trinidad  asphalt. 

The  Spaniards  robbed  the  island  of  its  inhabitants  in 
the  earlier  centuries  and  made  them  slaves.  In  the  second 
century  of  its  discovery  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  touched  at  the 
island  and  tarred  his  ships  with  the  black  asphalt  found 
native  here,  which  now  supplies  the  pavement- material  for 
so  many  American  cities.  Two  centuries  of  conflict  be- 
tween England,  France,  and  Spain  ensued  (in  which  the 
natives  suffered  the  most),  until  1797,  when  the  English 
came  into  permanent  possession.  Trinidad  is  historically 
interesting  as  the  place  where  Cortez  parted  from  Governor 
Velasquez,  with  all  the  vessels  and  men  fitted  out  for  the 
conquest  of  Mexico. 

Politically,  Trinidad  is  another  British  colony,  with  its 
governor,  staff,  and  legislature,  constituting  a  distinct 
government  from  the  other  West  Indies.  Like  other  Brit- 
ish colonial  governments,  it  has  good  roads,  good  police, 
good  schools,  good  public  works  and  institutions  of  all 
kinds,  together  with  high  taxation  and  a  large  public  debt. 
There  are  two  colleges  and  one  hundred  and  ninety-eight 
public  schools.  There  are  fifty-four  and  a  quarter  miles  of 
railway  in  operation  on  the  island,  and  thirty  more  in 
process  of  construction.  These  are  owned  by  the  govern- 
ment. 

The  principal  exports  are  fifty  thousand  tons  of  sugar 
yearly,  cocoa,  Angostura  bitters  (of  which  rum  is  the 
basis),  molasses,  asphalt,  and  cocoanuts,  valued  at  $9,819,- 
244,  of  which  one  half  the  value  is  for  stigar.  The  exports 
of  asphalt  to  the  United  States  in  1897  amounted  to  109,- 
243  tons. 

About  one  fourth  of  the  soil  is  cultivated.  A  majority 
of  the  sugar-estates  are  provided  with  modern  machinery, 
while  the  Usine  St.  Madeleine  is  the  largest  sugar-factory 
in  the  British  West  Indies.  The  Agricultural  Society  and 
Chamber  of  Commerce  declare  the  sugar  industry  to  be 
"  undoubtedly  in  danger  of  extinction." 


THE   SOUTH   AMERICAN   ISLANDS  369 

One  of  the  chief  sources  of  value  to  Trinidad  is  the 
asphalt  lake,  which  supplies  the  material  for  American 
pavements.  This  is  a  plain  of  one  hundred  acres  more  or 
less,  situated  about  sixty  miles  south  of  Port  of  Spain. 
The  lake  has  a  black  surface,  with  inky  pools  of  soft  bitu- 
men and  spots  of  yellow  bubbles  and  water- cracks.  The 
surface  is  yielding,  and  a  strong  odor  of  sulphureted  hy- 
drogen prevails.  Anything  more  black  and  repulsive  can 
hardly  be  imagined.  It  has  been  likened  to  a  vast  asphalt 
pavement  with  many  holes  filled  with  inky  waters  in 
which  swim  ugly  fish  and  black  beetles.  When  pieces  of 
pitch  are  taken  from  the  lake,  nature  at  once  begins  to  re- 
pair the  damage,  and  in  twenty-four  hours  the  hole  is  filled 
again.  The  tract  is  leased  by  the  government  to  an 
American  asphalt  company  for  forty-one  years,  and  yields 
a  revenue  of  $142,500  a  year  to  the  government.  The 
company  has  established  machinery  near  the  lake  to  crush 
and  purify  the  pitch,  which  comes  from  the  lake  in  carts. 
It  is  formed  in  blocks,  packed  in  barrels  or  transported  in 
bulk  by  elevated  trolleys  direct  to  the  ships  at  La  Brea. 

The  population  of  Trinidad  is  two  hundred  and  forty- 
five  thousand  people,  and  it  is  a  medley  of  English,  French, 
Spaniards,  negroes,  and  coolies.  The  English  go  there  to 
make  money  and  go  home  again.  Old  families  have  but 
few  representatives  left.  The  Caribbean  natives  have  long 
since  vanished,  and  negroes  and  East  India  coolies  have 
taken  their  place,  and  now  constitute  four  fifths  of  the 
population. 

The  chief  laboring  element  of  Trinidad  are  the  coolies, 
of  whom  there  are  ninety-eight  thousand  upon  the  island. 
They  are  brought  from  Hindustan,  under  contract,  at  the 
expense  of  the  colony,  and  under  care  of  the  government 
agents.  They  are  apprenticed  to  owners  for  five  years. 
The  Hindus  are  of  low  caste  and  do  not  amalgamate  with 
the  blacks.  They  dwell  by  themselves  in  little  huts  of  a 
peculiar  type,  and  maintain  their  own  dress,  priests,  and 
religious  ceremonials.    Rice,  cassava-roots,  and  fruits  sup- 


370  CUBA  AND  POETO   EICO 

ply  their  scanty  meals.  They  are  bound  by  law  to  work 
nine  hours  a  day  for  two  hundred  and  eighty  days  in  the 
year,  and  receive  a  regular  rate  of  wages,  usually  less  than 
sixpence  a  day.  The  law  concerning  this  apprenticed 
labor  is  very  strongly  enforced  both  upon  the  coolie  and 
his  employer.  Each  estate  employing  coolies  is  obliged  to 
provide  hospitals  under  the  inspection  of  medical  visitors, 
and  all  the  labor  arrangements  are  subject  to  the  inspec- 
tion of  government  agents,  who  visit  the  estates  constantly 
and  report  each  week  to  the  agent-general  of  immigrants ; 
he  in  tijrjn  i^eports  to  the  governor,  who  has  absolute  au- 
thority, to  cancel  the  contract  arid  remove  any  and  all  the 
coolies  from  an  estate.  When  the  time  of  indenture  is 
ended  the  coolie  is  entitled  to  transportation  back  to  his 
native  land.  In  lieu  thereof  he  can  make  a  new  contract 
for  a  year,  or  he  can  remain  and  work  wherever  he  chooses, 
and  receive  the  amount  of  his  return  passage  in  cash.  He 
is  also  allowed  the  option  of  a  government  grant  of  ten 
acres  of  land  instead  of  return  passage-money.  Low  as 
their  wages  are,  most  of  them  accumulate  considerable 
sums,  which  are  often  converted  into  silver  bracelets  and 
bangles  for  the  arms  and  ankles  of  their  women,  who  thus 
preserve  the  family  treasure.  Some  have  settled  perma- 
nently on  the  island,  and  others  have  returned  for  a  second 
term  of  service,  bringing  friends  and  relatives  with  them. 
The  system  is  a  good  one  for  the  countiy,  and  it  may  be 
remarked  that  it  is  similar  to  that  which  prevailed  in  Vir- 
ginia, "South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Jamaica  before  the 
Ariaerican  Revolution,  when  the  poor  people  of  England 
were  similarly  apprenticed  to  Southern  planters. 

There  is  a  steady  flow  of  negro  population  from  the  other 
British  West  Indies  to  Trinidad,  especially  from  St.  Vin- 
cent and  Barbados. 

Tobago,  about  seventy  miles  to  the  southeast  of  Grenada, 
is  the  most  eastern  island  of  the  South  American  group. 
Its  area  is  one  hundred  and  fourteen  square  miles,  and 
it  is  diversified  with  hills  and  vales,  and  is  equal  in  rich- 


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COOLIES 


COOLIE   HOUSES 
TRINIDAD 


THE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  ISLANDS  371 

ness  of  production  to  the  other  islands.  Two  thirds  of 
Tobago  are  still  covered  with  primeval  forest,  comprising 
many  varieties  "of  hard- wood  and  ornamental  trees.  The 
climate  is  remarkably  healthful,  and  the  air  very  fine  and 
pure.  The  scenery  is  beautiful,  and  delightful  rides  can  be 
taken.  Horses  can  be  easily  obtained  at  very  moderate 
charges. 

This  is  another  island  where  the  former  heavy  produc- 
tion of  sugar  has  ceased.  The  people,  since  the  great  col- 
lapse in  sugar  in  1885,  have  taken  to  diversified  agriculture 
and  the  raising  of  sheep  and  horses.  Tobacco  and  cotton 
have  been  lately  introduced. 

Tobago's  welfare  is  intimately  associated  with  that  of 
Trinidad,  the  two  islands  being  politically  and  commer- 
cially connected.  The  only  place  of  importance  is  the 
little  town  of  Scarborough. 

The  only  other  island  of  the  South  American  group 
worthy  of  present  mention  is  Curasao — that  quaint  frag- 
ment of  old  Holland  located  on  the  southern  border  of  the 
Caribbean.  Nearly  five  hundred  miles  west  of  Trinidad, 
and  just  off  the  western  part  of  the  northern  coast  of 
Venezuela,  it  is  the  capital  of  the  few  square  miles  of 
America  owned  by  Holland  in  widely  disseminated  frag- 
ments at  the  extremes  of  the  Lesser  Antilles. 

The  island  embraces  two  hundred  and  ten  miles  of  rugged 
topography,  composed  of  volcanic  rocks  surrounded  by 
coral  reefs.  Some  of  the  twenty-eight  thousand  inhabi- 
tants grow  beans,  corn,  cattle,  and  salt,  but  most  of  them 
are  engaged  in  commerce  or  office-holding.  They  are  by 
no  means  wealthy.  The  Dutch  Creoles  are  a  fair-skinned 
and  pleasant  people  who  speak  Dutch,  French,  and  English, 
but  the  negroes  have  a  queer  dialect  known  as  the  papai- 
mento. 

Wniemstad,  the  capital  of  the  island,  has  an  excellent 
harbor.  It  is  a  quaint  old  Dutch  city,  suggestive  of  what 
New  York  may  have  been  two  hundred  years  ago.  Its 
substantial  buildings  include  the  colonial  offices,  for  Wil- 


372  CUBA   AND   POETO   KICO 

lemstad  is  the  residence  of  the  governor  of  all  the  West 
Indian  Dutch  islands,  including  Saba,  St.  Eustatius,  and 
the  half  of  St.  Martin,  three  hundred  miles  away,  and  the 
adjacent  islands  of  Oruba  and  Buen  Ayre.  He  has  his 
staff  and  council  and  army,  and  the  gezaghebhers,  or  chiefs, 
of  all  the  other  islands  report  to  him. 

Curasao  does  a  large  business  with  Venezuela,  largely 
through  smugglers,  who  take  the  goods  to  the  mainland. 
The  cordial  made  of  orange-peel  and  known  as  Curasao  is 
not  made  on  the  island,  but  in  Holland,  although  it  is  the 
favorite  island  drink. 

The  remaining  islands  of  this  group,  of  which  Margarita 
is  the  largest,  are  rocky,  dry,  and  arid,  and  of  little  com- 
mercial or  economic  importance. . 


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GATHERING    SUGAR-CANE 


LAUNDRESSES  TURNING  THE   WINDMILL 

BAEBADOS 


CHAPTER  XXXV 

BAEBADOS 

TTisnlflT  position  of  the  island.  The  coralline  origin  of  its  soils.  Govern- 
ment and  economic  conditions.  The  Barbadians.  Density  of  popula- 
tion.    The  struggle  for  existence. 

STANDING-  alone  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  one  hundred 
and  twenty-five  miles  east  of  the  Caribbean  chain,  is 
Barbados,  which  might  as  well  be  located  in  the  Indian  Ocean 
or  the  China  Sea  so  far  as  the  resemblance  of  its  natural 
features  to  the  other  West  Indian  Islands  is  concerned.  It 
is  as  solitary  as  the  Bermudas  or  Azores,  and  in  its  social 
and  cultural  aspects  is  equally  anomalous.  Furthermore, 
although  much  has  been  said  in  prose  and  poetry  of  the 
coral  islands  of  the  West  Indies,  this  is  the  only  one  exten- 
sively populated  by  man  which  may  be  said  to  be  of  that 
origin,  with  the  exception  of  Grande-Terre  (Guadeloupe), 
and  its  dependencies  of  Desirade  and  Maria  Galante. 

The  island  resembles  a  pear  in  outline  (the  narrow  end 
of  which  points  to  the  north),  and  is  slightly  concave  on 
the  east.  There  are  no  outlying  islands,  as  many  suppose, 
probably  owing  to  the  final  letter  of  the  name  of  the  island, 
which  suggests  plurality.  Its  area  is  one  hundred  and 
sixty-six  square  miles. 

In  configuration  the  island  is  elevated,  and  yet  not  moun- 
tainous, the  highest  point,  near  the  center.  Mount  Hillaby, 
being  eleven  hundred  feet,  from  which  the  land  descends 
in  a  series  of  low  terraces  on  all  sides  to  the  sea.  So  gen- 
tle are  the  hills  that  as  one  drives  tor  the  summit  over  the 

373 


374  CUBA  AND  POKTO  KICO 

well-built  roads  the  ascent  is  scarcely  noticeable.  The 
aspect  of  the  country  is  that  of  a  beautiful  rural  landscape, 
with  innumerable  sugar-fields,  interspersed  with  groups  of 
neat  houses  and  plantations  suiTounded  by  gardens  and 
trees,  while  ancient  Dutch  windmills  may  be  seen  in  every 
direction  cleaving  the  air  with  their  gigantic  arms. 

In  geological  composition  the  island  is  unique.  It  con- 
sists of  a  nucleus  of  folded  and  crumpled  clays  and  gravel 
of  Eocene  age,  like  the  older  sedimentaries  of  the  Antilles, 
derived  from  some  unknown  land  of  the  past,  accompanied 
by  thick  layers  of  white  marl  and  radiolarian  earth  of 
deep  oceanic  origin.  Over  the  whole,  like  the  rind  of  a 
melon,  there  is  a  thick  veneering  of  calcareous  coral  rock, 
made  up  of  gigantic  coral  heads  consisting  of  reefs  like 
those  now  gi-owing  around  the  island,  which  have  been 
gradually  elevated  to  their  present  height  above  the 
waters.  This  old  reef  rock  is  everywhere  except  in  the 
limited  Scotland  district  on  the  east  side,  where  it  has 
been  worn  away.  It  is  never  over  one  hundred  feet  thick. 
The  highways  are  cut  through  these  coral  reefs ;  the  stone 
houses  are  constructed  of  them ;  the  planter  plows  into 
their  surface  to  grow  his  cane.  The  beautiful  natural  ter- 
races everywhere  so  conspicuous  are  the  edges  of  these 
elevated  reefs. 

The  climate  of  the  island  is  delicious.  The  trade-winds 
blowing  across  the  vast  expanse  of  the  ocean  bring  an  air 
of  crystalline  purity,  which  has  been  fittingly  compared  to 
champagne.    The  rainfall  is  ample,  but  not  excessive. 

The  principal  city  and  only  port  is  Bridgetown,  on  the 
leeward  or  western  side;  a  pretty  place,  with  churches, 
public  buildings,  gigantic  warehouses,  shops,  some  hand- 
some residences,  clubs,  and  many  neat  little  houses  of  the 
lower  classes,  besides  pleasure-grounds,  a  handsome  mili- 
tary parade,  seaside  drives,  and  exquisite  beaches.  There 
is  also  a  good  library,  an  interior  view  of  which  is  shown 
in  an  illustration. 

There  is  no  harbor,  although  shallow-draft  schooners 


'     BAKBADOS  375 

may  enter  a  small  creek ;  but  before  the  city  lies  a  beauti- 
ful roadstead,  where  can  be  seen  lying  at  anchor  a  host  of 
sailing-vessels,  old-time  brigs,  frigates,  ships,  and  modern 
schooners,  presenting  a  sight  which  is  rarely  seen  in  these 
days  when  steam  has  so  largely  supplanted  sailing-craft. 

The  place  is  a  central  port  of  call  and  repair  for  all  the 
sailing-craft  of  the  South  Atlantic,  as  well  as  for  many 
steamship  lines.  Above  all,  it  is  the  headquarters  of  the 
Koyal  Mail  Steamship  Company.  The  Royal  Mail  is  the 
pride  of  every  English  heart  in  the  West  Indies — the  great 
artery  of  communication  that  keeps  the  islands  in  touch 
with  the  mother-country.  It  is  a  glorious  sight  on  every 
other  Saturday,  when  five  great  steamers  of  this  line 
anchor  in  the  roadstead — one  from  England,  one  going 
home  from  Colon  and  Jamaica,  and  three  supplementary 
steamers  that  go  up  and  down  the  Caribbees  to  St.  Thomas 
on  the  north,  Trinidad  on  the  south,  and  Demerara  on  the 
east.  They  are  usually  crowded  with  English  tourists, 
who  come  out  to  see  these  beautiful  islands  and  review  the 
scenes  of  England's  past  colonial  and  naval  glories. 

Like  Jamaica,  the  Bahamas,  the  Leeward  Islands,  the 
Windward  Islands,  and  Trinidad,  Barbados  is  an  indepen- 
dent colony,  with  its  governor  and  legislature  and  all  the 
excellent  features  of  colonial  administration.  The  religion 
is  chiefly  that  of  the  Church  of  England,  although  other 
denominations  are  represented.  There  is  one  little  railroad 
about  twenty  miles  long,  which  carries  the  passengers 
through  vast  sugar-fields  to  the  east  coast,  and  then  follows 
the  rocky  shores  of  the  latter  into  the  Scotland  district. 
This  road  is  a  narrow-gage  affair  with  a  diminutive  engine, 
which  is  fired  with  a  common  house-shovel.  Grood  high- 
ways extend  throughout  the  island. 

The  economic  condition  of  Barbados,  like  its  natural 
aspects,  is  different  from  that  of  any  other  colony  in  the 
West  Indies.  There  is  substantially  but  one  industry,  one 
product,  and  one  export,  that  of  sugar ;  nor  does  the  island 
appear  to  be  suited  for  the  growth  of  any  other  product  on 


376  CUBA  AND   PORTO   EICO 

a  scale  of  commercial  importance.  There  are  no  large 
central  factories,  the  estates  are  small,  and  the  mills,  in 
most  cases,  are  primitive,  a  large  proportion  of  them  being 
ancient  windmills;  but  the  sugar  industry  has  survived 
because  of  the  superior  care  with  which  the  cultivation  of 
the  cane  is  carried  on,  the  exceeding  richness  of  the  juice 
of  the  cane,  and  the  cheapness  of  labor.  If  cane  were  cul- 
tivated as  carefully  in  Cuba  as  it  is  in  Barbados,  the  former 
island  would  be  capable  of  supplying  the  world  with  sugar. 
The  whole  area  of  the  island  is  occupied,  and  of  its  total 
acreage  of  106,470,  every  foot  is  under  cultivation,  except 
6470  acres  occupied  by  towns,  cliffs,  or  highways.  There 
are  no  crown  lands,  no  forests,  and  the  population  has 
probably  reached  the  maximum  which  the  island  can  sup- 
port, even  in  favorable  circumstances. 

Nowhere  are  the  resources  of  nature  so  closely  garnered 
as  here.  Not  a  thing  goes  to  waste ;  even  when  one  darky 
ejects  a  mouthful  of  cane-fiber  after  extracting  the  juice, 
his  follower  on  the  roadside  picks  up  the  mass  to  save  it 
for  fuel ;  the  negroes  brave  the  billows  in  boats  which  no 
white  man  could  sail,  and  perform  the  apparently  impos- 
sible task  of  catching  by  thousands  the  flying-fish— an  ani- 
mal which  seems  especially  adapted  to  avoid  man's  cunning. 

Barbados  has  but  one  other  resource  besides  the  sugar 
industry,  and  that  is  the  presence  of  tourists  in  the  winter 
and  the  shipping-men  who  touch  there. 

The  imports  of  the  island  greatly  exceed  the  exports ;  in 
1896  the  former  amounted  to  $4,982,208.50,  and  the  latter 
to  $3,603,953.25.  Many  of  the  sugar-estates  are  being 
carried  on  under  governmental  aid.  The  island  is  chiefly 
dependent  upon  the  United  States  for  its  food-supplies 
and  mules  (from  Kentucky)  for  the  estates,  and  we  prac- 
tically consume  the  whole  of  its  sugar  product.  The  mili- 
tary establishment  has  also  been  the  means  of  distributing 
some  $237,500  per  annum,  but  as  the  government  intends 
transferring  the  troops  to  St.  Lucia,  the  welfare  of  the 
island  will  be  still  further  reduced. 


COUNTRY  CHURCH 


LANDING  WHARF,  BRIDGETOWN 


BARBADOS 


BARBADOS  377 

The  only  mineral  product  of  Barbados  is  "  manjack," 
a  form  of  asphalt  which  occurs  in  the  older  rocks  of  the 
Scotland  district.  During  the  last  two  years  a  few  experi- 
mental shipments  have  been  made  to  Boston  by  the  Ameri- 
can owners. 

The  radiolarian  earth  is  a  splendid  abrasive  material 
which  could  be  used  in  the  arts,  but  no  one  has  thought 
of  shipping  it. 

Barbados  is  in  many  respects  an  ideal  place  for  those  in 
search  of  a  restful  tropical  spot.  A  large  hotel  for  Ameri- 
can tourists  is  open  during  the  winter  months,  while  on 
the  eastern  side  of  the  island  are  some  charming  country 
inns  at  Bathsheba  and  Cranes  Point,  well  kept  in  the  Eng- 
lish style.  In  winter  many  visitors  come  here.  The  Eng- 
lish of  Trinidad  and  Gruiana  seek  the  place  as  a  health- 
resort.  Each  fortnightly  ship  of  the  Eoyal  Mail  from 
Great  Britain  brings  hundreds  of  English  tourists  who 
come  out  to  see  the  colonies;  and  it  is  seldom  that  an 
American  yachting-party  or  man-of-war  cannot  be  found 
in  the  roadstead.  Excellent  carriages  are  everywhere 
available  for  driving,  while  the  sea-shore  and  bathing  are 
as  beautiful  as  could  be  desired. 

It  is  an  interesting  historical  fact  that  the  only  foreign 
trip  ever  taken  by  George  Washington  was  made  to  this 
island  in  1752,  in  company  with  his  brother  Lawrence,  who 
was  an  invalid.  Here  the  "  Father  of  his  Country  "  enjoyed 
the  hospitality  of  the  island,  and  also  had  the  small-pox. 
It  was  a  pleasure  to  revisit  the  scenes  which  he  had  de- 
scribed in  his  diary,  especially  the  old  Christ's  Church, 
which  now  stands  almost  as  he  saw  it. 

The  whites  of  Barbados  are  descended  from  people  who 
were  blood-relations  of  our  Virginia  colonists,  and  there  are 
the  same  family  names  which  are  met  with  in  Virginia. 
Before  the  Revolution  there  was  an  intimate  communica- 
tion between  the  relatives  of  the  two  distant  colonies,  and 
frequent  visits  were  made. 

The  inhabitants  of  Barbados  number  186,000,  averaging 


378  CUBA  AND  POETO  KICO 

1120  to  the  square  mile,  the  most  densely  populated  coun- 
try in  the  world  to  be  found  outside  of  China.  There  are 
many  white  families,  numbering  altogether  20,000  persons, 
most  of  whom  have  for  generations  looked  upon  Barbados 
as  their  home ;  the  attachment  of  these  people  to  the  island 
and  the  traditions  of  the  past  is  exceedingly  strong.  The 
island  has  been  settled  for  so  long,  and  so  many  generations 
have  lived  side  by  side,  that  a  general  understanding  ap- 
pears to  have  grown  up  of  the  respective  habits  and 
requirements  of  the  different  classes.  The  whites  are  out- 
numbered by  the  blacks  in  the  proportion  of  over  eight  to 
one,  and  such  blacks  as  cannot  be  seen  elsewhere. 

The  Barbadian  blacks  have  evolved  into  a  distinct  race, 
well  marked  by  a  physiognomy  and  dialect  which  can  be 
recognized  wherever  seen.  They  are  especially  noted  for 
their  large  and  rotund  heads,  accompanied  by  open  coun- 
tenances and  pleasant  features.  To  the  credit  of  the  Eng- 
lishman it  can  be  said  that  the  effects  of  miscegenation  are 
hardly  visible  upon  the  island,  and  that  the  African  race 
seems  to  have  been  preserved  in  all  its  opaque  purity.  In 
dress  the  Barbadians  differ  from  the  other  "West  Indian 
Islanders,  the  costumes  of  the  men  being  neat  suits  of 
white  cotton, — coat,  shirt,  and  trousers, — while  the  univer- 
sal costume  of  the  women  is  also  pure  white,  accompanied 
by  a  neatly  folded  head-dress.  Their  clothing  is  stiffly 
starched  with  cassava.  Shoes  are  worn  only  to  church. 
Obiism  seems  to  have  almost  disappeared  from  among 
these  black  people  in  Barbados,  and  most  of  them  can  read 
and  write. 

Before  the  ship  has  dropped  its  anchor  in  the  offing,  a 
mile  from  shore,  it  is  surrounded  by  hundreds  of  these 
people  in  boats.  They  are  passed  masters  in  the  art  of  at- 
tracting the  attention  of  the  stranger,  and  scramble  with  a 
good-natured  ferocity  for  his  patronage.  A  rowboat  hav- 
ing been  selected  from  the  crowd,  the  journey  to  the 
wharves  begins.  As  these  are  approached  they  are  seen  to 
be  a  living  mass  of  black  humanity,  and  almost  as  soon  as 


> 

>■  a 

O  2 

>  m 

!2:  -^ 

c  5 
o 


BAKBADOS  379 

he  is  within  ear-shot  the  passenger  is  assailed  by  a  clamor 
of  voices  begging  the  privilege  of  carrying  his  baggage.  As 
you  land  upon  the  mall  they  beg,  cajole,  and  grab  you, 
until  in  sheer  desperation  you  sit  down  upon  your  trunk, 
and  with  a  cane  defy  the  imploring  mob.  Then  they 
laugh  at  you,  and  defy  you  to  strike  them,  grinningly  be- 
seeching a  blow.  "  I  wish  you  would  hit  me,  massa ;  I  '11 
take  the  law  on  you,  sah."  You  soon  learn  that  there  is  no 
viciousness  on  the  island.  You  are  merely  witnessing  the 
struggle  for  existence,  which  is  keener  here  than  anywhere 
else  in  the  world.  Everywhere  you  go  upon  the  island 
you  meet  the  gi'inning  faces  of  these  blacks,  who  stop  you 
upon  the  road,  and,  after  securing  your  attention  with  a 
salute  both  gracious  and  flattering,  politely  inform  you 
that  they  would  "  t'ank  you  for  a  penny,  sah." 

This  island  is  one  of  the  few  places  in  the  world  where 
human  labor  is  so  cheap  that  it  competes  with  the  beast  of 
burden.  On  the  densely  crowded  commercial  streets  of 
Bridgetown  may  be  seen  great  drays  loaded  with  mer- 
chandise, sugar-hogsheads,  or  lumber.  In  some  instances 
these  are  drawn  by  teams  of  Kentucky  mules,  while  nearby 
is  a  vehicle  of  the  same  character  pulled  by  a  sweating 
team  of  human  beings.  Yet  never  have  I  seen  a  people 
who  were  withal  so  cheerful  and  good-natured ;  with  them 
the  very  struggle  for  existence  seems  to  have  increased 
their  cheerfulness  and  good-natured  impudence,  and  in  no 
manner  to  have  quenched  their  spirits. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  island  is  now  devel- 
oped to  its  fullest  capacity,  these  people  are  so  attached  to 
it  that  they  can  hardly  be  forced  to  leave,  and  are  as  proud 
of  their  nationality  as  if  they  were  citizens  of  some  great 
country. 


CHAPTER   XXXVI 

GEOLOGICAL  FEATURES  OF  THE  WEST  INDIES 

General  paucity  of  mineral  resources.  Iron.  Manganese.  Salt.  Phos- 
phate. Svdphur.  Asphaltum.  Peculiar  geological  history  of  the 
region.     Its  bearing  upon  the  myth  of  Atlantis. 

THE  reader  may  have  noted  the  brevity  of  my  remarks 
concerning  the  mineral  resources  of  the  West  Indies. 
In  general  it  may  be  stated  that  these  islands  are  poor  in 
those  products  of  the  rocks  which  are  useful  to  mankind. 
No  mineral  fuels  of  any  kind  are  found,  unless  rock 
asphalt  (which  is  used  in  Cuba  for  the  manufacture  of 
gas,  and  in  Barbados  for  running  a  locomotive)  may  be 
so  considered. 

The  precious  metals  are  found  only  in  the  Great  An- 
tilles, and  even  there  they  are  restricted  to  Cuba  and 
Santo  Domingo,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  they  occur  in  paying 
quantities  in  either  of  these.  Copper  is  found  in  the 
same  islands,  but  also  in  doubtful  quantities.  But  two 
metallic  ores  are  known  to  occur  in  quantity,  iron  and 
manganese.  These  occur  in  eastern  Cuba  in  great  purity 
and  large  quantity,  and  have  been  or  are  the  source  of 
much  value.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  similar 
ores  may  be  found  in  Haiti  and  San  Domingo.  Salt, 
which  in  these  islands  is  more  a  product  of  the  sea  than 
of  the  land,  is  worked  for  profit  in  Cuba,  Turks  Island, 
Anguilla,  St.  Martin,  and  perhaps  other  places.  Sulphur 
is  known  to  occur  in  the  soufrieres  of  the  Caribbee 
Islands,  but  it  is  probably  not  in  great  quantities  or  com- 

380 


GEOLOGICAL  FEATURES  OF  THE  WEST  INDIES     381 

mercially  accessible,  for  the  exports  have  never  been  con- 
siderable. 

Asphalt  may  be  said  to  rank  next  to  iron  as  the  chief 
mineral  product.  This  occurs  in  Cuba,  Santo  Domingo, 
Barbados,  and  Trinidad.  The  Cuban  kind  is  of  a  superior 
quality  for  the  purpose  of  making  varnishes.  The  Bar- 
badian "  manjack  "  is  also  a  species  of  rock  asphalt  valu- 
able in  the  arts.  In  Trinidad  alone,  however,  does  this 
material  occur  in  any  great  abundance.  Pitch  Lake  being 
the  greatest  asphalt-producer  in  the  world.  While  build- 
ing-stone, good  enough  for  local  uses,  is  abundant  in  all 
the  islands,  they  are  singularly  void  of  ornamental  export 
rock.  Closely  textured  marbles  and  sandstones  are 
unknown.  In  the  backbone  of  the  Antillean  Mountains 
in  the  two  larger  islands  there  are  some  fine  granitoid 
rocks,  but  no  commercial  development  has  been  made  of 
them. 

Many  hypotheses  have  been  advanced  in  literature 
concerning  the  origin  of  the  West  Indian  Islands.  Some 
have  believed  that  the  Caribbees  and  Bahamas  represent 
the  remnants  of  a  great  isthmus,  like  the  present  Panama 
neck,  which  extended  from  the  southern  end  of  Florida  to 
northern  South  America,  and  this  hypothetical  feature 
has  been  called  the  Windward  bridge.  Others  have 
looked  upon  the  islands  as  decayed  remnants  of  the 
former  eastward  extension  of  the  American  continent. 
Others  still  have  considered  the  Antilles  the  remnants  of 
the  ancient  Atlantis — the  large  island  which,  according 
to  an  ancient  tradition  that  was  credited  to  the  Greek 
geographers,  was  situated  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean  west  of 
Africa,  opposite  the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  Plato  says  that 
nine  thousand  years  before  his  time  this  was  inhabited  by 
a  populous  and  powerful  people,  who  conquered  the 
western  part  of  Europe  and  Africa,  and  furnished  a 
tremendous  force  of  invaders  who  threatened  to  overcome 
all  the  people  of  the  Mediterranean,  until  the  gods  finally 
came  to  the  rescue  and  sent  a  great  earthquake  which 


382  CUBA  AND   POKTO   EICO 

caused  the  island  to  sink  into  the  sea.  Some  writers  of 
more  recent  date  have  explained  the  shallows  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Gulf  by  alleging  them  to  be 
remnants  of  this  mythical  island.  None  of  these  hypoth- 
eses is  correct,  however,  although  there  are  facts  which 
might  seem  to  the  superficial  observer  to  support  any  one 
of  them. 

The  West  Indies,  as  we  have  shown,  are  largely  the  tips 
of  great  rugosities  of  the  earth's  solid  crust,  the  larger 
portions  of  which  are  submerged  below  the  ocean.  Great 
areas  of  these  irregularities,  like  the  banks  of  the  western 
Caribbean,  do  not  reach  the  surface  of  the  water  at  all; 
others,  like  the  Bahamas,  rise  thousands  of  feet,  yet  barely 
project  as  tips  of  land ;  still  others,  like  the  superb  Antil- 
lean  Mountains,  although  two  thirds  submerged,  are  so 
high  that  they  rise  ten  thousand  feet  or  more  above  the 
present  sea-level.  If  the  submerged  banks  could  be 
elevated  a  hundred  fathoms,  or,  conversely,  if  the  sea 
could  be  lowered  to  the  same  extent,  the  area  of  the 
West  Indies  would  be  nearly  doubled.  That  the  sub- 
merged portions  of  these  ridges  and  banks  have  stood 
much  higher  than  now,  making  more  extensive  bodies  of 
land,  is  most  probable;  and  it  is  likely  that  there  have 
been  many  changes  of  level. 

It  is  reasonably  certain  that  the  West  Indian  lands  before 
the  close  of  the  Tertiary  period  were  much  more  extensive 
than  now,  and  that  the  Great  Antilles  were  once  a  con- 
nected body  of  land.  This  being  so,  without  other  evi- 
dence the  Windward  bridge  might  have  been  a  possibility. 
But  the  facts  of  biology  and  geology  show  us  that  such 
was  not  the  case,  for  if  this  bridge  had  existed,  the 
Great  and  Lesser  Antilles  would  now  be  populated  by 
the  animals  common  to  the  two  continents,  instead  of 
being  nearly  void  of  mammals  and  absolutely  without 
any  North  American  features  among  their  living  or  fossil 
land  faunas.  Furthermore,  geological  surveys  have 
proved  that,  during  this  time  of  the  expanding  Antillean 


GEOLOGICAL  FEATURES   O'F  THE  WEST  INDIES  383 

lands,  the  Gulf  Stream  flowed  out  from  the  American 
Mediterranean  as  now,  but  through  a  passage  across  the 
northern  half  of  Florida,  completely  severing  the  West 
Indies  from  North  America,  and  that  southern  Florida 
was  at  one  time  a  West  Indian  island.  Nevertheless, 
during  at  least  one  epoch  the  Great  Antilles  were  prob- 
ably connected  into  a  single  large  island,  while  the 
Bahama  banks  to  the  northward  made  a  long  peninsula 
nearly  as  large  in  area,  projecting  out  from  Florida. 
Furthermore,  the  great  banks  of  the  western  Caribbean 
Sea  were  at  that  time  projections  of  land  probably  con- 
necting Central  America  with  Jamaica  and  possibly  Cuba, 
All  of  these  areas,  with. parts  of  Central  America,  may 
have  been  a  vast  island  lying  between  the  continents  (for 
it  is  most  probable  that  Central  America  then  had  no 
connection  with  North  or  South  America),  thereby  ful- 
filling the  old  conception  of  an  Atlantis;  but  man  had  not 
at  that  time  appeared  upon  the  earth,  or,  if  so,  it  has  not 
been  proved,  and  hence  there  is  no  reason  for  supposing 
that  this  body  of  land  was  the  Atlantis  of  the  Grecian 
myth. 

The  geological  history  of  these  islands  has  been  charac- 
terized by  gigantic  revolutions,  marked  by  remarkable 
oscillations  up  and  down,  and  general  changes  in  area  of 
the  land  and  sea,  such  as  are  unknown  or  but  feebly  re- 
flected in  the  synchronous  history  of  the  more  stable  and 
adjacent  continents.  The  merest  tyro  in  geologic  know- 
ledge knows  that  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States, 
except  the  narrow  coastal  plain,  has  long  been  a  stable 
land,  covered  with  vegetation  and  drained  by  rivers  since 
the  Carboniferous  period.  He  also  knows  that  at  the  end 
of  the  Cretaceous  and  the  beginning  of  the  Tertiary 
period  the  great  Cordilleras  of  the  western  half  of  North 
and  South  America  were  elevated  approximately  to  theiy, 
present  outlines  and  that  the  main  continents  then  passed 
into  a  period  of  old  age.  At  this  time,  however,  the 
known  history  of  the  West  Indies  was  just  beginning; 


384  CUBA   AND   PORTO   EICO 

there  may  have  been  a  few  Paleozoic  nucleal  rocks  in 
Cuba  and  Santo  Domingo,  but  even  this  is  uncertain,  for 
the  oldest  positively  determined  rocks  belong  to  the 
Cretaceous,  Tertiary,  and  Pleistocene  ages.  During  these 
later  epochs  remarkable  changes  have  taken  place  in  the 
Antilles,  following  one  another  with  such  rapidity  that  they 
have  made  a  more  complicated  history  than  all  the  events 
that  marked  the  earlier  ages  of  the  mainland. 

At  the  close  of  the  Cretaceous  period  the  Great  Antilles 
were  regions  of  volcanic  activity,  by  which  material  was 
transferred  from  the  bosom  of  the  earth  into  gigantic 
heaps  of  volcanic  rocks.  Whether  these  stood  as  islands 
in  the  sea  or  rose  from  a  body  of  preexisting  land  no  one 
can  answer,  but  the  vast  heaps  of  land- derived  gravel 
and  conglomerate  which  make  the  great  thicknesses  of  old 
sedimentary  rock  in  the  Antillean  Mountains  and  consti- 
tute the  oldest-known  formations  of  Barbados  and  the 
Virgin  Islands  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  at  the  begin- 
ning of  Tertiary  time  there  were  land  areas  in  the  West 
Indies  concerning  the  shape  and  area  of  which  we  cannot 
even  speculate.  This  may  have  been  a  still  earlier  At- 
lantis than  the  one  we  have  above  suggested.  At  this  time 
the  Caribbean  chain  was  probably  a  line  of  active  volcanoes. 

Then  followed  another  vast  revolution.  The  preex- 
isting lands  subsided  beneath  the  sea  to  great  depths,  in 
places  five  miles  or  more,  until  only  the  merest  tips  of 
the  highest  land  of  the  Great  Antilles  remained  above  the 
sea.  Then  these  were  probably  reduced  to  small  islands, 
possibly  as  diminutive  as  the  smallest  Caribbee  of  to-day, 
and  their  former  areas  covered  with  the  calcareous  radio- 
larian  slime  of  the  ocean's  bottom.  This  was  in  the  second 
quarter  of  the  Tertiary  history. 

Then  came,  in  the  third  quarter  of  Tertiary  history, 
another  revolution  by  which  the  ocean's  floor  was  cor- 
rugated into  land,  and  the  old  sediments  with  the  deep 
sea  chalks  and  muds  were  folded  into  the  gigantic  Antil- 
lean  mountain   systems,   which   at   this   time   probably 


GEOLOGICAL  FEATURES  OF  THE  WEST  INDIES     385 

reared  their  summits  to  twenty  thousand  feet  or  more, 
connecting  all  the  Antilles  into  a  body  of  land,  and  pro- 
ducing the  Atlantis  which  we  first  described.  This 
mountain-making  epoch  was  the  one  which  produced  the 
remarkable  east-and-west  folds  we  have  so  frequently 
mentioned  in  these  pages,  and  which  formulated  the 
present  major  geogi'aphy  of  the  Antilles.  With  this  oro- 
genic  revolution  ended  the  volcanic  disturbances  of  the 
Great  Antilles,  but  the  Caribbean  vents  were  piling  their 
heaps  of  tuff  and  cinder  higher  and  higher. 

Then  followed  another  general  subsidence  throughout 
the  region  in  the  fourth  quarter  of  the  Tertiary  history. 
This  subsidence  was  great,  but  not  so  profound  as  that  of 
the  previous  epochs.  It  was  sufficient,  however,  to  cut 
up  the  Antillean  Atlantis  into  its  present  island  mem- 
bership, to  carry  beneath  the  waters  the  former  lands 
represented  in  the  now  submerged  banks,  and  to  restore 
the  limits  of  the  narrow  ridge  from  which  rose  the  Carib- 
bean volcanoes. 

In  later  geologic  time,  when  great  glacial  sheets  covered 
the  North  American  region,  and  since  then,  the  West 
Indian  region  has  been  rising  again  in  most  places, 
although  subsiding  in  others.  The  old  banks  of  the 
Caribbean  Sea  and  submerged  platforms  around  the 
islands  were  brought  up  to  within  one  hundred  fathoms 
of  the  surface,  and  upon  them  the  reef-making  coral 
polyps  found  lodgment  and  began  to  add  their  contribu- 
tion to  the  rock-making  forces  of  the  earth.  This  is 
shown  by  elevated  benches  of  reef  rock  around  so  many 
of  the  islands,  and  by  the  elevated  wave-cut  terraces  of 
Cuba  and  Haiti,  to  which  we  have  called  attention. 

During  these  later  changes  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose 
that  the  two  great  basins  of  the  American  Mediterranean 
— the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Caribbean  Sea— at  any 
time  lost  their  general  integrity  or  connection  with  the 
mother  oceans,  although  their  limits  were  expanded  and 
contracted,  and  at  times  they  may  have  been  invaded  by 


386  CUBA   AND    POKTO   RICO 

the  Pacific;  for  Agassiz's  researches  have  shown  that  their 
bottoms  are  still  inhabited  by  the  old  marine  life  which 
began  further  back  in  geologic  time  than  is  recorded  in 
the  rocks  of  the  surrounding  lands. 

In  conclusion  we  can  only  say  that  the  West  Indian 
history,  although  peculiar  and  still  largely  uninterpreted, 
shows  no  evidence  that  these  islands  were  ever  in  any 
manner  connected  with  the  North  American  continent. 


i 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 

RACE  PROBLEMS  IN  THE  WEST  INDIES 

Varied  nationality  and  character  of  the  inhabitants.  Condition  of  the 
native  whites.  Possibilities  of  the  white  race.  The  negroes.  Their 
general  character,  habits,  and  moral  condition.     ObiLsm,  or  witchcraft. 

I  BELIEVE  it  was  Froude  who  remarked  that  the  West 
Indies  might  be  a  very  interesting  field  for  the  con- 
templation of  the  naturalist,  but  for  the  student  of  people 
they  presented  little  that  was  of  interest.  I  cannot 
wholly  agree  with  this  proposition.  The  spectacle  of  the 
political  conditions  of  the  natives  of  the  West  Indies  is 
indeed  pitiful,  but  the  people  themselves  are  interesting, 
whether  perturbed  Cubans,  despondent  San  Domingoans, 
hopeless  English,  atavistic  Martiniques,  or  the  vast  hordes 
of  blacks  of  many  kinds.  I  have  tried  to  convey  an  idea 
of  how  each  of  these  islands  is  breeding  a  different  species 
of  mankind,  but  a  volume  would  not  suffice  to  amplify 
this  topic.  Not  only  upon  each  island,  but,  as  Hearn  has 
shown,  in  mountainous  Martinique  "people  are  born  and 
buried  in  the  same  valley  without  ever  seeing  towns  but  a 
few  hours'  journey  beyond  their  native  hills,  and  distinct 
racial  types  are  forming  within  three  leagues  of  each  other." 
The  West  Indian  people  represent  many  original  stocks, 
which  have  developed  variations  of  habits  and  customs  in 
their  New  World  environment.  They  are  practically 
divisible  into  three  great  races,  the  white,  colored,  and 
black,  modified  by  Spanish,  English,  and  French  civiliza- 
tions. 

387 


388  CUBA  AND   POKTO   EICO 

The  Danish  and  Dutch  influences  are  trivial.  The 
English  habit,  wherever  implanted,  is  one  of  law  and 
order.  Where  the  Latin  predominates,  civilization  is 
lacking,  at  least  in  methods  of  modern  sanitation.  In 
the  countries  in  which  the  French  race  habit  has  been 
implanted,  Haiti,  Martinique,  and  Guadeloupe,  there  has 
resulted  a  more  complete  elimination  of  the  Caucasian 
type  than  in  either  the  English  or  Spanish  islands. 

The  condition  of  the  native  whites,  with  some  excep- 
tions, is  most  unfortunate,  and  yet  at  the  close  of  the  last 
century  no  finer  race  existed  than  the  whites  of  the  West 
Indies,  of  whom  were  Hamilton,  Dumas,  and  the  Empress 
Josephine.  With  the  industrial  ruin  these  people  have 
rapidly  decreased,  and  their  children  are  sent  to  more 
progressive  parts  of  the  world.  We  do  not  mean  to  say 
that  most  excellent  white  people  may  not  be  found  in  all 
the  leading  walks  of  life,  upon  every  island,  but  these  are 
not  increasing,  and  the  old  planter  class  is  almost  gone. 

Yet  here  and  there  we  find  proofs  that  the  white  race 
still  maintains  its  foothold.  The  descendants  of  the  old 
Dutch  settlers  of  Saba,  St.  Eustatius,  and  Curasao  are 
examples  of  a  long-domiciled  European  race  which  has 
not  lost  in  complexion  or  sturdiness.  Upon  every  little 
island  can  be  found  an  old  Yankee  skipper  or  two  who 
has  settled  there  to  enjoy  old  age;  merchants,  bankers, 
consuls,  and  shipping-agents  seem  also  to  find  life  pleas- 
ant in  these  tropical  surroundings. 

Modern  science  has  done  much  to  alleviate  the  process 
of  acclimation  in  the  tropics,  yet  every  one  who  goes 
there  must  pay  a  penalty.  Changes  in  the  tissue  must 
follow  if  the  individual  is  to  become  wholly  acclimated  or 
adapted  to  the  new  conditions.  The  nice  balance  of 
power  is  upset.  Many  unduly  expose  themselves  to  the 
scorching  sunlight;  others  expose  themselves  to  the 
heavy  dews.  Many  indulge  in  the  fully  matured  juicy 
fruits  of  the  tropics,  thereby  upsetting  the  already  over- 
taxed internal  machinery.    A  fever  of  some  kind  is  a  mere 


5? 
15 


15 


BACE  PBOBLEMS  IN   THE  WEST   INDIES  389 

question  of  weeks  or  months.  It  may  be  a  simple  mala- 
rial fever,  a  pernicious  malarial  fever,  or  the  dreaded  "  yel- 
low Jack." 

White  men  went  to  the  West  Indies  long  before  these 
days  of  modern  sanitation,  and  lived  to  old  age,  and 
others  can  now  do  the  same.  It  is  but  fair  to  say  that 
the  present  population,  both  white  and  black,  has  only 
been  established  at  a  tremendous  cost  of  life.  The  Eng- 
lish have  reduced  the  death-rate  in  Jamaica  from  100 
to  19  per  1000,  and  the  Americans  will  reduce  that  of 
Cuba;  but  even  with  all  that  science  has  done  and  is 
doing,  acclimation  will  for  many  years  remain  a  costly 
process,  which  will  always  require  sacrifice  of  strength, 
if  not  of  life. 

In  the  West  Indies  there  are  but  two  or  possibly  three 
islands  in  which  there  is  room  for  further  Caucasian 
colonization— Cuba,  Santo  Domingo,  and  possibly  Ja- 
maica. Porto  Rico  is  already  crowded,  while  the  Lesser 
Antilles,  owing  to  their  remoteness  from  markets,  offer 
no  inducement  at  present  to  white  immigration.  It  is 
only  to  the  business  man  and  developer  of  large  enter- 
prises that  these  islands  offer  opportunities.  With  the 
exception  of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  they  are  overwhelm- 
ingly populated  by  the  black  races.  These  people,  consti- 
tuting the  laboring  element,  are  there  to  stay,  for  better 
or  for  worse,  and  their  future  advancement  or  degenera- 
tion depends  upon  the  treatment  they  receive  from,  and 
the  example  that  is  set  them  by,  the  governing  classes. 
Some  of  the  islands  are  so  densely  populated  that  they 
seem  incapable  of  supporting  another  human  being,  while 
others  possess  room  for  future  black  populations. 

Every  thoughtful  reader  must  ask  if  this  large  propor- 
tion of  blacks  is  not  a  menace  to  our  civilization.  I  have 
tried  from  time  to  time  to  show  that  the  West  Indian 
negroes  are  of  many  varieties,  but  that  they  are  a  harm- 
less and  useful  race,  that  they  are  the  only  people  who 
can  do  hard  manual  labor  in  the  tropics,  and  that  they 

26* 


390  CUBA  AND  PORTO  RICO 

could  not  be  easily  replaced.  Many  suppose  that  the 
present  West  Indian  negro  is  the  natural  result  of  adap- 
tation to  a  climate  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  his 
ancestral  home ;  but  this  is  not  altogether  true,  for  it  has 
been  shown  that  he  is  in  a  degree  a  result  of  the  survival 
of  the  fittest,  for  the  process  of  acclimation  cost  many  lives 
for  every  individual  that  survived. 

The  black  races  of  the  West  Indies,  and  their  habits,  are 
most  interesting  studies.  Grathered  as  they  were  from 
numerous  tribes  of  Africa  and  settled  upon  the  different 
islands,  they  naturally  show  not  only  differences  in 
inherited  qualities,  but  in  those  habits  acquired  from 
different  masters  for  which  the  African  is  noted.  Thus 
there  are  English,  French,  Spanish,  Irish,  Scotch,  and 
Dutch  negroes  in  the  various  islands. 

As  a  class  these  are  industrious  and  orderly,  varying  in 
these  respects  with  the  political  condition  of  their  mas- 
ters ;  but  it  is  a  singular  fact  that  the  great  crimes  of  rape 
and  murder,  which  have  been  such  a  blot  upon  the  record 
of  the  American  negroes,  are  almost  unknown  in  the  West 
Indies.  As  Sir  Henry  Blake,  lately  governor  of  Jamaica, 
remarked  to  the  writer,  a  woman  can  travel  alone  from 
one  end  to  the  other  of  that  island,  without  thought  of 
danger.  Furthermore,  the  horrible  habit  of  lynching, 
which  prevails  in  our  Southern  States  as  an  accompani- 
ment of  those  crimes,  is  entirely  unknown;  in  fact,  but 
few  capital  crimes  are  committed  in  the  West  Indies. 

Another  quality  concerning  the  West  Indian  negro  is 
the  fact  that  the  caste  system,  which  exists  there  as  a  rule, 
is  quite  different  from  that  of  the  United  States.  Here 
the  negro  is  almost  universally  debarred  from  civil  equal- 
ity, and  seems  to  have  more  strongly  impressed  upon  him 
the  constant  feeling  that  the  white  race  is  opposed  to  his 
obtaining  opportunities  and  civil  advancement,  although 
our  laws  convey  the  impression  that  all  men  are  equal. 
In  the  more  advanced  West  Indies,  especially  the  British, 
social  equality  is  neither  taught  nor  believed  in  by  any 


CARIB    INDIANS 


CARIB    ROCK-INSCRIPTIONS 
ST.   VINCENT 


KACE   PROBLEMS   IN   THE  WEST  INDIES  391 

person.  Caste  and  station  are  acknowledged,  and  the 
negroes  realize  that  it  depends  upon  intelligence  and 
merit;  and  they  do  not  feel  that  service  is  degrading. 
They  also  recognize  the  necessity  of  strong  government, 
and  have  a  deep-seated  respect  for  the  laws  and  those 
who  administer  them. 

The  devotion  and  respect  of  the  English  negroes  for 
their  country  is  most  impressive.  One  morning,  while 
watching  a  landing-drill  of  the  British  tars  upon  the 
beautiful  campus  at  Barbados,  my  attention  was  dis- 
tracted by  a  great  black  market-woman  who  kept  mut- 
tering to  herself  in  a  perfect  ecstasy  of  delight :  "  Dem  's 
Mistress  Keen's^  soldiers,  and  in  de  time  when  de  enemy 
comes  dey  '11  take  care  ob  me."  This  feeling  that  the 
government  will  protect  the  rights  of  the  lowest  is  the 
gi*eat  safeguard  against  any  inherited  tendency  of  sav- 
agery to  be  disorderly. 

In  my  travels  in  the  West  Indies  I  have  never  seen  the 
least  incivility  on  the  part  of  the  negroes  toward  the 
whites,  though  I  have  seen  them  at  their  best  and  at  their 
worst.  As  a  geologist,  it  has  been  my  habit  to  employ 
the  first  man  or  boy  I  saw  upon  the  road  to  carry  speci- 
mens and  do  the  drudgery  on  my  excursions  into  the 
country.  I  have  never  had  one  fail  me  within  his  limita- 
tions, nor  be  less  respectful  than  if  he  were  the  private 
orderly  to  a  general. 

Much  has  been  written  upon  the  low  moral  condition, 
mental  degradation,  and  superstition  of  the  West  Indian 
negroes.  Concerning  the  first  charge  it  can  be  said  that, 
in  all  respects  other  than  that  of  looseness  in  sexual  rela- 
tions, they  are  superior,  as  a  class,  to  the  negroes  of  our 
own  country.  The  white  clergy  in  the  West  Indies  are  in 
close  touch  with  the  black  population,  who  are  not  cut 
off  from  the  higher  class  of  religious  instruction,  as  in  this 
country.  Crimes  against  property  or  person  are  com- 
paratively rare,  and  the  negroes  have  not  the  reputation 

1  Queen  Victoria. 


392  CUBA   AND   POETO    RICO 

there  of  a  natural  propensity  for  stealing,  as  expressed  in 
American  caricature.  So  far  as  mental  degradation  is 
concerned,  I  have  been  astonished  at  the  literacy  of  these 
people,  especially  in  the  British  West  Indies,  where  men 
and  women  working  for  a  shilling  or  less  a  day  are  able 
to  read  and  write.  Furthermore,  there  have  been  excep- 
tional cases  where  negroes,  outside  of  Haiti,  have  risen  to 
positions  of  learning  and  influence,  like  the  chief  justice 
of  Barbados,  and  many  blacks  in  the  English  civil  service. 

Concerning  the  charge  of  superstition,  it  is  true  that 
both  the  blacks  and  whites  of  the  West  Indies  are  satu- 
rated with  it,  but  not  to  the  degree  that  has  been  alleged. 
Every  book  of  West  Indian  travels  tells  of  this  subject, 
picturing  the  terrible  doings  of  the  obi-men,  their  influ- 
ence over  the  ignorant  peasants,  and  the  deadly  fear 
they  create  among  the  white  planters.  Some  even  go  so 
far  as  to  tell  of  horrible  cannibalistic  sacrifices  and  orgies 
which  defy  the  most  vivid  imagination  to  describe.  One 
who  reads  St.  John's  book,  "Hayti;  or,  The  Black  Ee- 
public,"  will  be  filled  with  horror  at  the  tales  of  cannibal- 
ism and  savagery  it  recounts,  and  shudder  at  the  thought 
of  such  deeds  within  gunshot  of  our  own  country.  Yet  it 
is  my  calm  conclusion,  borne  out  by  the  testimony  of 
others,  that  the  writer  of  this  book  has  committed  the 
common  mistake  of  adding  to  the  actual  facts  of  the 
African  obi  rites  the  imaginary  French  witch-lore  known 
as  vaudoux  (voodoo). 

In  opposition  to  St.  John's  charges  Mr.  Bassett,  the 
Haitian  consul-general,  wrote :  "  I  have  lived  in  Haiti  as 
United  States  minister  for  nine  years,  and  there  is  just 
about  as  much  cannibalism  there  as  there  is  in  the  city  of 
New  Haven." 

A  doctor  of  divinity,  a  native  West  Indian,  wrote: 
"  From  my  own  knowledge  I  can  testify  that  the  voodoo 
worship  and  the  snake  dance  are  practised  in  Haiti,  but 
cannibalism,  I  am  sure,  is  not  a  custom  of  the  Haitians." 

Mr.  Preston,  who  for  many  years   was  dean  of  the 


NEGRO    HUT 


AFRICAN   BASKET-WATTLE    HOUSE,    BOARD    HOUSE,    ADAPTATION    OF  SAME 

ST.  VINCENT 


RACE  PROBLEMS  IN   THE  WEST  INDIES  393 

diplomatic  corps  in  Washington,  said:  "I  was  born  in 
Haiti  and  spent  about  half  of  my  life  in  that  country, 
and  I  never  saw  any  person  who  had  seen  anything  there 
in  the  shape  of  cannibalism.  I  have  seen  persons  who 
were  known  serpent-worshipers,  but  no  such  thing  exists 
as  voodooism." 

Mr.  Whidden,  the  first  minister  of  the  United  States  to 
Haiti,  believed  that  these  reports  were  based  on  popular 
rumor,  sometimes  originating  in  private  malice,  and  was  of 
the  opinion  that,  if  the  truth  were  ascertained,  there  would 
be  found  no  more  cannibalism  in  Haiti  than  in  Jamaica. 

Most  of  the  West  Indian  negroes,  only  a  few  genera- 
tions removed  from  savagery,  undoubtedly  believe  in 
witchcraft,  and  practise  it,  too,  as  I  shall  describe ;  but  the 
most  absurd  feature  is  that  the  native  whites,  while  not 
practising  it,  believe  in  its  powers  and  exaggerate  its 
actual  performances  by  attributing  to  it  all  the  absurd 
doings  which  their  Gaelic  or  Saxon  forefathers  believed 
in  two  thousand  years  ago.  I  have  taken  great  pains  to 
study  this  peculiar  subject  in  both  the  United  States  and 
the  West  Indies. 

Nearly  all  races  of  mankind  in  primitive  ages  have 
believed  in  witchcraft;  that  is,  that  certain  persons  have 
dealings  and  influences  with  evil  spirits  whereby  they 
obtain  the  power  to  work  spells  for  good  or  evil  upon 
other  people  or  their  belongings.  This  is  not  religion  at 
all.  It  contains  no  moral  or  contemplative  conception, 
but  is  merely  a  sanction  of  savage  fear  and  revenge — a 
form  of  belief  and  practice  which  preceded  religion  in  the 
evolution  of  all  mankind.  Its  conceptions  still  linger  in 
the  folk-lore  of  civilization,  and  more  strongly  than  we 
are  inclined  to  think,  for  thousands  of  the  peasantiy  of 
European  countries,  and  perhaps  our  own,  still  believe  in 
witches  and  their  supernatural  powers. 

African  witchcraft  goes  under  many  names.  In  the 
English  colonies  it  is  known  as  obiism,  in  Haiti  and  the 
French   colonies  as   vaudouxism,   in   Louisiana  as  voo- 


394  CUBA   AND   PORTO   EICO 

dooism,  and  in  the  other  Southern  States  of  English 
settlement  as  conjure.  Its  reflection  in  the  Northern 
States  is  called  hoodoo.  Furthermore,  obiism  and  con- 
jure on  the  one  hand,  and  vaudoux  and  voodoo  on  the 
other,  are  two  distinct  conceptions. 

The  first  is  African  witchcraft  as  actually  practised  by- 
negroes  the  world  over.  The  second  is  the  French  con- 
ception of  imaginary  witchcraft— inherited  folk-lore  from 
the  days  of  ancient  Graul,  something  which  all  French 
peasants  believe  to  be,  but  which  is  not  and  has  not  been. 

Obiism,  like  all  savage  religions,  is  based  upon  belief 
in  evil  spirits  which  can  be  invoked  or  propitiated  by 
gifted  human  beings.  The  conception  of  a  benevolent 
Supreme  Being  is  not  essential  or  necessarily  considered ; 
or  if  considered,  he  is  all-good  and  needs  no  human  pro- 
pitiation, but  the  evil  spirits  are  those  which  must  be 
guarded  against  or  cajoled.  Obiism  is  characterized  bj^ 
four  essential  beliefs:  (1)  that  certain  human  beings 
can  propitiate  or  influence  the  evil  powers;  (2)  that  evil 
spirits  are  associated  with  serpents  and  reptiles;  (3)  that 
the  shades  of  the  dead  return  to  work  revenge  upon  the 
living;  (4)  that  chai*ms  for  good  or  evil  can  cast  spells 
upon  the  victim. 

The  first  and  chief  factor  of  this  savage  belief  is  the 
witch-doctor  or  obi-man— the  voodoo-doctor  of  Louisiana 
and  the  conjure-doctor  of  the  South.  His  power  lies 
in  the  influence  of  his  presence  upon  simple-minded  folk, 
and  the  faith  he  creates  in  the  potency  of  his  charms 
and  actions.  He  is  usually  a  venerable  man  of  hideous 
mien,  who  goes  about  pretending  to  practise  spells  and 
charms,  and  selling  a  few  simple  herb  remedies.  He  is 
undoubtedly  a  survival  of  the  medicine-man  found  in 
every  tribe  in  Africa,  and  exercises  a  great  power  for 
good  or  evil  through  his  hypnotic  powers.  He  may  or 
may  not  possess  a  knowledge  of  a  few  simple  vegetable 
poisons,  as  alleged.  In  exceptional  cases  he  may  cause 
ignorant  servants  to  administer  poison  or  slow  deranging 


NEGROES  AND    LOW   WHITES,    EAST   SIDE   OF    BARBADOS 


FISHERMAN'S    HUT,    S 

ANTIGUA  AND   BARBADOS 


EACE  PROBLEMS   IN   THE  WEST   INDIES  395 

drugs  to  their  masters  from  motives  of  vengeance.  All 
the  whites  of  the  West  Indies  believe  that  they  do  so,  and 
weird  stories  are  told  of  planters  who  have  thus  sickened 
and  died. 

Another  strong  feature  of  obiism  is  the  belief  in- 
haunts.  The  negroes  believe  that  not  only  the  spirit  but 
the  person  of  the  dead,  in  a  modified  form,  returns  to 
trouble  the  living.  These  more  nearly  correspond  to  the 
shades  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  having  body  and  substance, 
than  to  our  conception  of  spirits  which  are  without  them. 
These  shades  are  known  in  Jamaica  as  "duppies,"  in 
Martinique  as  "zombi,"  in  Antigua  and  Barbados  as 
"  jumbies,"  and  in  America  as  "  harnts."  They  are  some- 
what related  to  the  myths  of  the  will-o'-the-wisps,  for 
Jamaica  duppies,  at  least,  have  fiery  eyes  ("D  is  for 
Duppy;  him  eye  shine  like  fire"),  and  the  darkies  are  in 
dread  of  moving  lights  at  night.  Duppies  and  their  kind 
are  supposed  to  inhabit  certain  trees,  especially  the  giant 
ceiba,  which  in  Jamaica  is  particularly  feared  by  the 
negroes  on  this  account ;  and  they  will  not  cut  or  injure  it, 
except  after  threats  or  violence,  and  even  then  they  must 
first  be  made  drunk;  and  while  felling  it  they  chant  a 
song,  "  Me  no  cut  you,  massa ;  he  cut  you."  Dead  chil- 
dren are  especially  liable  to  return  as  duppies  to  haunt  the 
mother,  who,  even  though  she  may  have  been  the  ten- 
derest  of  creatures,  always  recalls  some  act  of  omission  or 
commission  on  her  part  which  will  cause  the  child  to 
return  and  punish  her.  To  prevent  this,  they  are  very 
particular  to  put  heavy  weights  upon  the  graves;  other- 
wise they  will  awake  some  night  to  find  the  duppy  sitting 
upon  the  foot  of  their  bed. 

Obiism,  in  its  most  primitive  form,  is  accompanied 
by  a  few  crude  rites.  Its  believers  are  supposed  to  meet 
at  night  in  some  wild  and  secret  place,  where  the  obi- 
doctors  or  priests  perform  incantations,  and  the  believers 
sing  and  dance  themselves  into  wild  trances  (such  as  the 
dance  on  the  Place  Congo  in  New  Orleans,  described  by 


396  CUBA   AND   PORTO  RICO 

Cable),  and  even  to  offer  blood-sacrifices  of  cocks,  goats, 
or  children,  to  propitiate  the  evil  one.  Sometimes  the  evil 
one  is  present  in  the  person  of  a  harmless  serpent,  as  in 
West  Africa  and  in  Haiti,  where  a  large  native  snake 
takes  the  place  of  the  African  reptile.  Among  other 
people,  as  in  Jamaica  and  the  United  States,  the  pro- 
pitiation of  the  snake,  as  such,  has  been  abandoned,  but 
all  of  the  reptilian  tribe  is  shunned  with  horror  and 
regarded  as  influential  for  evil  (powerful  obi).  Even  in 
Louisiana  snakes  are  said  to  enter  still  into  the  cere- 
monials of  obiism. 

The  trances  into  which  our  negroes  fall  at  their  religious 
revivals  are  undoubtedly  survivals  of  these  rites.  These 
meetings  have  practically  been  abandoned  by  the  blacks 
wherever  white  churches  have  been  instituted,  except 
possibly  in  Haiti  and  Jamaica,  and  even  there  they  are 
infrequent. 

A  remarkable  fact  concerning  these  rites  is  that  descrip- 
tions of  them  are  based  on  hearsay,  the  narrators  always 
asserting  that  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain  anything  au- 
thentic respecting  them,  owing  to  the  secrecy  with  which 
they  are  carried  on.  This  fact  adds  to  the  suspicion  that 
even  the  African  devils  are  painted  blacker  than  they 
really  are,  and  that  many  of  their  alleged  doings  have 
taken  place  only  in  the  imagination  of  the. narrator. 

Such  is  the  worst  obiism  of  the  West  Indian  blacks, 
which  may  survive  only  in  Haiti,  if  even  there ;  which,  in 
a  modified  form,  can  be  found  everywhere  in  our  own 
country;  and  which  is  in  no  manner  markedly  different 
from  the  tales  of  witchcraft  which  one  cannot  escape  if  he 
visits  Salem,  Massachusetts. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  African  obiism  sur- 
vives in  some  form  wherever  the  African  race  is  extant, 
just  as  the  Germans  and  English  believe  in  elfs,  gnomes, 
and  fairies;  and  in  a  degree  it  is  practised  in  America 
from  Boston  to  the  equator.  Taverner,  writing  in  the 
Boston  "Post"  of  February  1,  1883,  describes  a  negress 


RACE   PROBLEMS   IN   THE   WEST   INDIES  397 

conjurer,  and  states  that  "  her  reputation  on  the  northerly- 
slopes  of  Beacon  Hill  fully  equals  that  which  the  most 
fashionable  physician  has  acquired  on  the  southerly  side 
of  the  same  eminence." 

In  1897,  within  a  week  after  my  retui*n  from  the  West 
Indies,  where  I  had  made  various  observations  upon 
obiism,  I  clipped  from  the  daily  papers  of  Washington 
city  three  notices  of  the  vaudoux-doctors  and  their  doings. 
One  had  been  arrested  for  illegal  practice  of  medicine  in 
the  city ;  another  of  much  celebrity  had  died ;  and  a  third 
had  been  guilty  of  some  trifling  misdemeanor  which  at- 
tracted public  attention. 

I  can  recall  vividly  to  this  day  the  scene  I  witnessed, 
as  a  boy,  upon  a  farm  within  four  miles  of  Nashville, 
Tennessee,  when  a  great  commotion  occurred  among  the 
former  slaves  in  the  quarters  then  still  occupied  by  them. 
There  was  such  a  loud  chattering  of  African  voices  from 
the  cabins  that  the  proprietor  of  the  place  proceeded  to 
ascertain  the  cause.  An  old  and  trusted  female  servant, 
who  was  afl&icted  with  scrofulitic  sores  upon  one  of  her 
arms,  was  denouncing  a  certain  negro,  who,  she  said,  had 
employed  an  aged  and  toothless  old  man,  then  standing  in 
the  center  of  the  crowd,  to  cast  his  spell  upon  her ;  and  as 
proof  of  her  assertions  she  produced  a  small  bottle  which 
she  had  dug  from  the  path  before  her  cabin  door,  con- 
taining a  few  horsehairs  and  reptile-claws,  which,  she  said, 
had  made  snakes  grow  in  her  arm. 

The  papers  of  the  South  frequently  mention  the  doings 
of  conjure-doctors.  The  Atlanta  "  Constitution  "  of  Novem- 
ber, 1885,  stated  that  perhaps  one  hundi-ed  old  men  and 
women  practised  voodooism  in  that  city— telling  fortunes, 
pointing  out  the  whereabouts  of  lost  and  stolen  goods, 
furnishing  love-philters,  and  casting  spells  upon  people  and 
cattle.     They  belonged  to  all  ranks  and  classes  of  negroes. 

The  American  conjure-doctors,  like  those  of  the  West 
Indies,  carry  bags  to  hold  their  charms,  consisting  of 
lizards'  claws,  dried  rats,  human  bones,  and  other  grue- 


398  CUBA  AND  POETO   EICO 

some  objects.  The  Selma  (Alabama) "  Times"  of  May,  1884, 
describes  one  of  the  bags  picked  up  in  Broad  Street  of 
that  city,  which  contained  a  rabbit's  foot,  a  piece  of  dried 
"coon-root,"  some  other  roots,  and  particles  of  parched 
tobacco.  The  rabbit's  foot,  perhaps,  possesses  more 
powers  of  sorcery  than  any  other  instrument  in  use 
among  the  black  doctors  of  the  South,  being  an  especial 
charm  against  evil,  particularly  "if  it  is  a  left  hind  foot 
from  an  animal  caught  in  a  country  graveyard  on  a  cloudy 
night  in  the  new  of  the  moon." 

The  rabbit's  foot  of  late  years  has  pervaded  white  so- 
'  ciety.  Base-ball  players  and  sporting  men  generally  carry 
one;  and,  mounted  in  silver,  they  are  displayed  in  the 
shops  of  our  great  cities.  Even  statesmen  can  be  seen 
wearing  these  as  watch-charms  in  Washington.  The 
Philadelphia  "Evening  Telegram"  of  August  7, 1884,  noted 
that  the  left  hind  foot  of  a  graveyard  rabbit  had  been 
presented  to  Grrover  Cleveland  as  a  talisman  in  the  cam- 
paign. 

The  vaudouxism  of  the  French  colonies  is  something 
different  from  obiism.  It  is  obiism  which  has  been 
magnified  by  attributing  to  it  the  imaginary  doings  of 
the  French  vaudois — the  supposed  cannibalistic  witches 
whom  every  French  peasant,  white  or  black,  thoroughly 
believes  in.  The  superstition  of  the  terrible  doings  of  the 
vaudois  is  as  firmly  embedded  in  the  folk-lore  of  the 
French  peasant's  mind  as  our  belief  in  the  rotation  of 
the  earth,  and  the  word  contains  a  strong  moral  reproach ; 
and  it  is  a  strange  coincidence  that  the  Vaudois  of  the 
fifteenth  century  were  accused  of  all  the  horrible  things 
which  to-day  are  attributed  to  the  Haitian  negroes,  such 
as  cannibalism,  especially  the  sacrificing  of  children  and 
eating  of  their  remains;  the  disinterment  after  burial  of 
those  parts  of  the  victims  of  such  sacrifices  as  have  not 
been  eaten;  the  transubstantiation  of  the  human  form 
into  the  shape  of  wolves  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
victims  for  the  sacrifice;   their  secret  knowledge  in  the 


RACE  PROBLEMS   IN   THE  WEST  INDIES  399 

use  of  herbs,  whereby  they  can  produce  health,  sickness, 
etc.,  especially  slow  death,  impotence,  riches,  poverty, 
storm,  rain,  hail,  and  tempest. 

From  the  similarity  between  the  stories  told  of  the 
Vaudois  and  of  the  Haitian  vaudoux,  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  most  of  the  horrors  attributed  to  the  latter  are 
merely  products  of  the  imagination  of  a  people  who 
through  their  French  association  have  become  impreg- 
nated with  their  belief  in  the  existence  of  this  particular 
species  of  witchcraft. 

Mr.  W.  W.  Newell,^  to  whom  I  am  indebted  for  many  of 
the  data  herein  presented,  has  shown  the  remarkable 
identity  of  the  charges  which  the  French  of  the  middle 
ages  made  against  the  good  and  pious  sect  of  Waldenses, 
and  those  now  daily  reiterated  concerning  the  vaudoux. 
These  good  people,  called  Vaudois,  were  then  accused  of 
practising  nearly  everything  that  is  laid  upon  the  vau- 
doux. They  were  called  a  sect  infernal  and  worthy  of  the 
hatred  of  all  good  Christians,  and  were  bitterly  perse- 
cuted, and  the  pious  members,  under  torture,  were  made  to 
confess  the  practice  of  witchcraft  and  all  horrible  things. 
Furthermore,  the  word  vaudois  meant  a  witch,  and  vau- 
derie  signified  a  sorcerer,  in  France.  At  the  same  time 
the  name  Vaudois  was  applied  to  an  imaginary  sect  of 
witches,  and  the  respectable  Waldenses  were  regarded  as 
guilty  of  all  horrible  crimes  laid  to  the  account  of  sor- 
cerers. The  word  still  sui'vives  in  France.  In  the 
canton  of  Vaud  the  form  is  vaudai,  a  sorcerer;  in 
Morvan  it  is  vaudoue,  and  the  corresponding  verb  is 
envaudoueiller,  signifying  to  bewitch  or  voodoo,  or,  in 
the  corrupted  form  which  it  has  assumed  north  of  Mason 
and  Dixon's  line,  "  hoodoo." 

1  "  Journal  of  American  Folk-lore,"  January,  1888,  vol.  i,  pp.  16-30. 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII 

THE  FUTUBE  OF  THE  WEST  INDIES 

Vicissitudes  which  have  been  survived.  Depression  of  the  sugar  indus- 
try. The  bane  of  alien  land-tenure.  Bad  effect  of  political  distribu- 
tion.    Prospective  relations  with  the  United  States. 

I  HAVE  endeavored  to  give  a  picture  of  the  present 
condition  of  the  West  Indies,  with  sufficient  notes  on 
their  history  to  convey  an  idea  of  their  past  and  present ; 
but  now  not  only  to  the  few  representatives  of  the  Cau- 
casian race  upon  these  islands,  but  to  the  civilized  world, 
the  question  is,  What  of  the  future  f 

These  beautiful  islands  have  stood  the  shocks  of  earth- 
quake, the  devastation  of  floods,  and  even  some  of  them 
the  greater  catastrophe  of  volcanic  outbreaks,  and  yet 
recovered.  Five  times  have  they  been  prostrated  by 
events  of  human  agency,  not  counting  the  extermination 
of  the  aborigines.  During  the  first  three  centuries  of 
their  settlement,  civilization  flourished  in  the  face  of  the 
most  rapacious  piracy  and  freebooting  the  world  has 
ever  known.  Then  came  European  wars  at  the  close  of 
the  last  century,  when  France,  Spain,  and  England  vied 
with  one  another  in  despoiling  them.  An  era  of  revolu- 
tions followed,  when  the  people  rose  or  threatened  to 
rise  against  European  domination.  Next  the  emancipa- 
tion of  slavery  upset  the  labor  system,  and  caused  as 
much  impoverishment  as  the  other  causes.  Finally,  in 
1885,  came  the  great  fall  in  the  price  of  sugar  and  the 
ruin  of  their  chief  industries.     In  all  but  Cuba,  sugar 

400 


NEWCASTLE   SUGAR-MILL 


SPREADING    BAGASSE    TO    DRY 
FOR    FUEL 


CANE-GRINDING   BY   WINDMILL 
POWER 


SUGAR-CULTUEE  —  BARBADOS 


THE  FUTURE  OF  THE  WEST  INDIES  401 

cultivation  is  now  paralyzed.  In  some  of  the  Lesser 
Antilles  it  is  still  carried  on  without  profit,  giving  the 
plantation  hands  a  mere  subsistence  and  tightening  the 
coil  of  debt  around  the  planters ;  in  others,  such  as  Do- 
minica and  St.  Thomas,  the  planters  have  given  up  the 
struggle,  and  the  once  productive  cane -fields  are  going 
back  to  jungle.  Unless  something  is  done  to  alleviate 
their  agricultural  conditions,  many  of  these  islands  will 
revert  to  primeval  forests  inhabited  solely  by  negroes.  It 
indeed  seems  a  pity  that  countries  blessed  with  the  richest 
conceivable  soils,  possessing  an  abundance  of  laborers 
who  are  willing  and  anxious  to  work  for  prices  averaging 
fifteen  cents  a  day,  should  be  decaying  at  the  close  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  when  the  demand  for  agi'icultural 
products  is  greater  than  ever  before  in  the  world's  history. 

It  is  true  that  the  beet-root  has  appeared  as  a  com- 
petitor with  the  cane  as  a  source  of  sugar ;  but  the  world 
would  consume  at  fair  prices  all  the  sugar  that  these 
islands  could  produce,  were  it  not  for  the  embargoes  of 
trade  and  artificial  political  conditions  produced  by  gov- 
ernmental greed.  Germany  alone,  notwithstanding  her 
enormous  production  of  beet-roots,  could  consume  the 
West  Indian  sugar-product,  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that 
by  its  bounties  and  tariffs  it  makes  this  article  too  dear 
for  its  own  people  to  use. 

The  English  islands  are  in  a  more  depressed  economic 
condition  than  the  others.  The  government  has  sacri- 
ficed her  West  Indian  colonies  for  a  principle.  Had  she 
put  a  protective  tariff  on  non-British  sugars,  these  islands 
would  be  at  least  well-to-do.  But  her  statesmen  have 
failed  to  see  why  the  millions  of  sugar-consumers  should 
be  taxed  for  the  few  West  Indian  planters,  even  though 
the  Germans  were  enriched  by  British  free  trade,  and  the 
islands'  prosperity  destroyed. 

Another  great  bane  of  the  English  islands  is  the  fact 
that  the  lands  are  largely  held  by  alien  owners,  who 
acquired  them  in  days  when  the  large  plantations  were 

26 


402  CUBA  AND   PORTO  RICO 

profitable.  In  St.  Vincent,  for  instance,  there  are  thou- 
sands of  acres  of  fertile  lands  uncultivated  and  likely  to 
remain  so.  The  holders  of  these  lands  appear  to  be 
unwilling  to  sell  them  in  small  lots  at  reasonable  prices, 
and  are  unable  to  cultivate  them.  The  British  Sugar 
Commission  has  recommended  that  these  lands  be  ac- 
quired by  the  government  and  sold  to  the  peasantry. 
It  has  justly  said  that  a  monopoly  of  the  most  accessible 
and  fertile  lands  by  a  few  persons  who  are  unable  any 
longer  to  make  beneficial  use  of  them  cannot,  in  the 
general  interests,  be  tolerated,  and  is  a  source  of  public 
danger. 

What  is  needed  in  the  British  West  Indies  is  a  com- 
bination of  the  English  and  American  systems— a  preser- 
vation of  the  English  respect  for  law  with  a  mixture  of 
American  push  and  go,  with  a  relaxation  of  the  English 
official  pride  which  looks  down  upon  trade  and  industry, 
and  a  little  less  American  familiarity,  which  breaks  down 
even  the  respect  in  which  the  West  Indian  negro  holds 
the  white  race,  and  which  is  the  only  barrier  between 
himself  and  his  political  supremacy  in  these  islands. 

A  greater  drawback  to  the  West  Indies  than  the  one- 
sided agricultm'e  is  their  political  condition.  Their 
distribution  among  too  many  jealous  nationalities  neces- 
sitates the  support  of  expensive  and  useless  adminis- 
trations, and  prevents  federation  of  interests  and  the 
development  of  trade  among  themselves  and  with  the 
United  States,  the  nearest  and  largest  natural  consumer 
of  their  products.  Very  ridiculous  some  of  these  political 
conditions  seem.  The  island  of  St.  Martin,  not  as  large 
as  an  average  county  in  the  United  States,  is  divided  into 
two  principalities,  the  French  and  the  Dutch,  each  of 
which  maintains  an  administrative  force  as  large  as  that 
of  the  State  of  Texas.  Then,  as  we  sail  down  the  eastern 
islands,  hardly  a  score  in  number,  and  within  sight  of  one 
another,  aggregating  in  area  less  than  our  little  State  of 
Delaware,  we  find  five  foreign  flags  and  no  less  than  a 


THE  FUTUEE  OF  THE  WEST  INDIES  403 

dozen  distinct  colonial  governments,  each  responsible  to 
Europe,  with  no  shadow  of  federation  between  them,  or 
even  cooperation  of  any  kind— a  condition  not  only  piti- 
able, but  absurd.  Why  should  Dominica,  whose  people 
are  French  in  language  and  institutions,  be  sandwiched 
in  between  Martinique  and  Guadeloupe,  and  within  easy 
sight  of  both,  yet  so  cut  off  from  them  by  quarantine  and 
tariff  laws  that  it  is  commercially  nearer  England,  some 
three  thousand  miles  distant,  than  it  is  to  its  neighbors  ? 

Every  product  of  these  islands,  were  it  not  for  the  polit- 
ical conditions,  would  as  naturally  j&nd  a  market  in  the 
United  States  as  the  magnetic  needle  finds  the  north. 
Notwithstanding  the  heavy  embargoes  of  our  tariff,  an 
average  of  sixty  per  cent,  of  the  West  Indian  products 
reaches  our  shores;  but  since  in  this  case,  at  least,  the 
producer  pays  the  tax,  there  is  no  present  profit  for  him, 
or  inducement  for  further  agricultural  extension.  Fur- 
thermore, while  permitting  sugar  and  coffee  to  reach  us, 
these  tariffs  are  a  barrier  to  the  cultivation  of  the  small 
fruits  for  which  the  West  Indies  are  peculiarly  adapted. 

Concerning  the  future  of  these  islands,  of  whatever 
nationality,  there  is  but  one  hope  and  one  end,  and  that 
is  political  or  commercial  annexation  to  the  United  States. 
As  Froude  has  said,  "  The  Yankee,  whether  we  like  it  or 
not,  is  sovereign  of  these  waters,"  and  we  may  add  that 
he  is  fast  acquiring  domination  of  the  land.  Every  Eng- 
lish statesman  of  the  past  fifty  years  has  seen  and  pre- 
dicted that  such  would  be  the  destiny  of  the  Antilles. 
The  writer  just  quoted  once  said,^  describing  the  harbor 
of  Trinidad :  "  When  we  arrived,  there  were  three  Ameri- 
can frigates,  old  wooden  vessels  out  merely  on  a  cruise, 
but  heavily  sparred,  smart  and  well  set  up,  with  the  Stars 
and  Stripes  floating  carelessly  at  their  stems,  as  if  in  these 
Western  seas,  be  the  nominal  dominion  British,  French, 
or  Spanish,  the  American  has  a  voice  also  and  intends  to 
be  heard." 

1  J.  A.  Froude,  "The  English  in  the  West  Indies  "  (1887). 


404  CUBA  AND   PORTO  KICO 

He  little  dreamed,  when  he  wrote  these  words,  only  ten 
years  ago,  that  in  so  short  a  time  those  wooden  frigates 
would  have  disappeared  from  our  navy,  and  that  one  of 
the  most  effective,  if  not  one  of  the  largest,  iron-clad 
navies  of  the  world,  manned  by  these  same  Yankees, 
would  be  in  their  place,  hammering  at  the  gates  of  Cuba, 
preliminary  to  the  establishment  of  American  domination 
in  the  G^reat  Antilles,  just  as  Rodney's  guns  a  hundred 
years  ago  determined  English  supremacy  in  the  lesser 
islands. 

The  events  taking  place  as  the  writing  of  this  book  closes 
will  release  at  least  two  of  the  G-reat  Antilles  from  their 
unnatural  political  and  trade  conditions,  and  we  may  count 
Porto  Rico  and  Cuba  as  saved  from  the  chaos.  If  American 
domination  is  established  in  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  there 
can  be  little  reason  for  longer  refusing  San  Domingo's 
plea  for  our  protection.  The  people  of  that  country  were 
the  first  to  realize  the  hopelessness  of  their  political  in- 
sularity and  to  seek  a  union  with  our  country,  which  was 
declined  for  reasons  now  no  longer  valid. 

The  growing  friendship  between  England  and  America 
may  also  residt  in  some  consideration  of  the  people  of  the 
British  West  Indies,  who  before  the  Revolution  were  so 
closely  allied  to  us  in  blood  and  trade.  Surely  it  is  a 
crime  against  nature  and  civilization  that  Jamaica,  Bar- 
bados, Dominica,  Antigua,  the  Bahamas,  and  others  of  the 
British- American  islands  should  be  allowed  to  die  of  dry- 
rot  because  of  tariff  laws. 

The  annexation  of  Hawaii  broke  down  the  great  senti- 
mental barrier  concerning  the  protection  of  the  few  sugar- 
planters  of  Louisiana  which  has  hitherto  stood  between 
us  and  the  West  Indies,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  our 
tariff  laws  of  the  future  will  have  some  mercy  upon  our 
West  Indian  neighbors.  The  West  Indies  and  the  Span- 
ish-American republics  once  had  in  America  a  friend,  a 
statesman  who,  in  the  gi'eatness  of  his  vision,  realized  the 
fact  that  the  interest  of  our  country  lay  in  cultivating 


THE  FUTURE  OP  THE  WEST  INDIES  405 

trade  relations  with  these  people.  While  the  reciprocity 
laws  which  were  passed  at  his  instigation  were  in  force  for 
a  few  years  prior  to  1882,  the  prosperity  of  the  West 
Indies  revived,  and  American  commerce  grew  as  it  had 
never  grown  before.  Their  abolition,  however,  quickly 
reacted  upon  both  parties. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  if  absolute  free  trade  were 
established  between  the  West  Indies  and  the  United 
States  it  would  prove  most  beneficial  to  both  countries, 
reviving  the  agricultural  prosperity  of  the  former,  and 
cresiting  a  market  for  the  manufactured  products  and  food- 
stuffs of  the  latter.  In  this  alone  is  there  any  hope  for 
the  future  of  these  islands. 

It  may  be  appropriate,  before  closing  this  work,  to 
speak  a  few  words  concerning  methods  of  seeing  the 
West  Indies.  Unless  you  have  your  own  yacht,  or  can 
take  one  of  the  great  ocean  liners  which  in  winter  make 
excursions  from  New  York,  touching  hastily  at  all  of  the 
principal  ports,  it  will  be  a  very  difficult  matter  to  get 
even  a  perspective  of  the  West  Indies  in  a  single  tour. 
But  excursion  steamers  and  yachts  at  their  best  give  little 
idea  of  the  true  inwardness  of  countries  and  peoples.  If 
you  wish  to  travel  rather  than  merely  tour,  you  must 
avail  yourself  of  the  tracks  of  commerce. 

Many  steamers  leave  New  York  for  the  West  Indies, 
but  there  is  no  line  which  takes  in  more  than  a  few  of  the 
islands.  Some  of  the  best  go  to  Cuba  and  Mexico  without 
touching  elsewhere;  others  only  to  Jamaica,  and  thence 
around  the  isthmian  regions  and  back  to  New  York; 
others  go  only  to  Haiti,  Santo  Domingo,  or  Porto  Rico, 
and  these  are  not  first-class.  One  of  the  best  companies 
takes  passengers  to  the  Virgin  and  Caribbee  Islands,  or 
rather  to  such  islands  as  are  not  quarantined  against  one 
another.  The  curse  of  West  Indian  travel  is  quarantine. 
The  English  islands— and  wisely,  too— are  usually  in 
quarantine  against  Cuba,  Haiti,  Santo  Domingo,  Mar- 
tinique, and  Guadeloupe,  and  it  is  only  in  exceptional 


406  CUBA  AND   PORTO  RICO 

cases  that  one  can  get  from  an  English  island  to  any  of 
these. 

My  advice  to  the  traveler  would  be  to  plan  two  separate 
tours,  giving  a  winter  to  each.  One  should  be  devoted  to 
the  French  and  Spanish  islands ;  the  other  to  the  English 
colonies.  The  first-mentioned  tour  can  be  initiated  by 
leaving  New  York  by  rail  for  Tampa,  Florida,  whence  one 
can  go  to  Havana  within  less  than  a  day.  Steamers  can 
also  be  taken  directly  from  New  York  either  to  Santiago 
or  Havana,  from  which  places  coasting-vessels  in  time  of 
peace  skirt  the  island.  Cuba  alone  is  worthy  of  a  winter's 
stay;  but  if  the  reader  wishes  to  proceed  farther,  he  can 
take  a  regular  line  from  Havana  to  Haiti,  and  from  Haiti 
to  San  Domingo,  Porto  Eico,  and  the  Danish  Virgin  Islands 
as  far  as  St.  Thomas.  There  he  will  find  means  of  reach- 
ing Martinique  and  Gruadeloupe.  The  traveler  who  makes 
this  journey  should  remember  that  he  is  almost  constantly 
exposed  to  disease  and  contagion,  and  should  acquire  such 
sanitary  and  hygienic  knowledge  as  will  enable  him  to 
avoid  them. 

The  second  tour  can  be  made  in  either  of  two  ways. 
The  Quebec  steamship  line  carries  travelers  directly  from 
New  York  to  St.  Thomas,  and  thence  down  the  English 
Caribbees  to  Trinidad  and  Barbados.  At  Barbados  con- 
nection can  be  made  semi-weekly  with  the  excellent 
steamers  of  the  English  Eoyal  Mail,  proceeding  thence  to 
Jamaica.  The  second  and  preferable  method  of  making 
this  tour  will  be  to  leave  New  York  by  one  of  the  better 
steamers  of  the  Atlas  line  for  Jamaica  direct.  These 
steamers,  as  a  rule,  do  not  carry  sugar,  and  one  avoids 
the  horrible  stenches  of  sugar-ships.  After  seeing  Ja- 
maica the  Royal  Mail  can  be  taken  from  thence  eastward 
to  Barbados,  from  which  point  one  can  use  the  subsidiary 
steamers  of  the  same  line  up  and  down  the  English 
islands,  south  to  Trinidad  or  Demerara  and  north  to  St. 
Thomas,  where  connections  can  be  made  for  the  United 
States.    I  will  not  vouch  for  the  excellence  or  comforts  of 


THE  FUTURE   OF   THE  WEST  INDIES  407 

the  average  American  steamer,  except  the  larger  vessels 
of  the  Atlas  line.  I  have  made  delightful  trips  on  some 
of  the  smaller  and  miscellaneous  vessels,  however,  and 
what  they  lack  in  luxuries  is  compensated  by  the  freedom 
of  the  ships  and  the  absence  of  disagreeable  company  or 
overcrowding.  One's  companions  are  usually  seafaring 
men  or  West  Indian  natives,  who  are  always  interesting. 

The  traveler  will  find  the  West  Indies  anything  but 
unpleasant  places ;  but  the  tourist  will  miss  the  luxurious 
American  hotels,  except  at  Bridgetown,  Barbados.  For 
my  part,  the  absence  of  these  has  not  been  regretted,  for 
one  gains  little  insight  into  the  life  of  a  place  when  he 
puts  up  at  a  foreign  caravansary,  and  the  West  Indies 
abound  in  small  and  hospitable  inns  where  one  can  find 
pleasure  and  entertainment. 

The  stories  of  uncleanliness  so  often  reported  by 
thoughtless  travelers  in  the  tropics  have  little  foundation. 
The  buildings  are  everywhere  neatly  colored  with  paint 
or  calcimine,  freely  renewed.  The  streets  of  the  smallest 
villages,  especially  in  Spanish  communities,  are  paved  with 
blocks  or  cobblestone,  and  all  contain  some  place  of  recre- 
ation and  attempts  at  ornamentation.  Every  Spanish 
village  possesses  one  or  more  public  squares,  beautifully 
laid  out  with  trees,  walks,  and  flowers,  neatly  ornamented 
with  seats  and  railings,  and  usually  with  a  band-stand  in 
the  center.  The  English  and  French  villages  have  botani- 
cal gardens,  preserving  the  floral  beauties  of  every  tropical 
land. 

Such  uncleanliness  as  exists  is  not  of  a  personal, 
private,  or  visible  kind,  but  solely  that  of  a  municipal 
and  public  character,  such  as  the  concealed  cesspools  and 
lack  of  modern  sewerage,  above  which  one  may  walk 
even  in  some  of  our  American  towns.  Perhaps  the  writer 
is  prejudiced  by  having  seen  in  his  own  countiy  unkempt 
places  of  similar  size,  beside  which  the  tropical  villages 
are  models  of  neatness  and  sanitation.  Certainly  no  such 
spectacle  can  be  seen  in  the  tropics  as  the  untidy  public 


408  CUBA  AND  POBTO  BIOO 

squares  of  our  cotton  belt,  with  their  hideous  architec- 
tural surroundings;  while  even  the  sight  of  the  worst 
spots  in  the  tropics  has  suggested  the  reflection  that  this 
was  at  least  better  than  what  I  had  seen  in  some  of  the 
cities  of  my  own  country. 

My  task  is  done.  I  have  tried  to  present  the  West 
Indies  as  I  have  seen  them.  Americans  who  have  not 
visited  or  studied  this  neighboring  region  may  have  found 
some  of  the  statements  and  conclusions  presented  con- 
trary to  the  popular  opinion ;  but  to  the  English  public 
what  I  have  stated  will  be  nothing  new.  Great  Britain's 
statesmen  have  long  been  aware  of  the  condition  and 
destiny  of  these  American  islands,  and  in  the  writings  of 
Trollope,  Froude,  and  others,  written  before  the  present 
cataclysm  of  tropical  history,  may  be  found  prophecies 
which  told  of  what  has  happened  or  is  taking  place.  The 
present  struggles  of  the  Spanish  Creoles  are  but  repeti- 
tions of  the  events  which  took  place  in  Haiti  a  century 
ago,  when  England  endeavored,  unsuccessfully,  to  inter- 
fere on  the  grounds  of  humanity,  as  we  have  done  this 
year.  As  these  pages  are  being  written,  ominous  fears  are 
expressed  concerning  the  Cuban  people;  but  Americans 
will  see  that  the  intervention  of  oui*  government  has  been 
justifiable  on  every  ground,  and  that  that  intervention  in 
behalf  of  the  "  Pearl  of  the  Antilles  "  meant  the  beginning 
of  a  better  and  brighter  day  for  all  the  "West  Indies.  The 
establishment  of  trade  relations  in  their  natural  channels, 
and  the  sweeping  away  of  the  antique  and  barbarous 
government  of  Cuba,  will  so  influence  the  conditions  of 
the  other  islands  that  they  must  inevitably  be  bettered. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


KOTB.  —  For  political,  hiatoriccU,  geographical,  etc.,  items,  see  the  names  of  the  respective 
islands  or  their  divisions.    For  specific  products,  animals,  etc.,  see  their  respective  names. 


Abaco,  300,  302 

Abercrombie,  Lord,  organizes  forces  to 
capture  Havana,  204 ;  retakes  St.  Lucia, 
360 

Acclimation,  tropical,  388-390 

Acklin  Island,  302,  303 

Adjuntas,  152,  181 

Africa,  381;  overrun  by  the  Atlanteans, 
381;  serpent-worship,  396.  See  also  Ne- 
GKOE8;  Slavekt;  Slave-trade 

African  dances,  folk-lore,  habits,  etc.,  227, 
232,  233,  286,  287,  321,  390,  393-399 

Africanization  of  the  West  Indies,  105, 106, 
142, 164,  389,  390,  401 

African  negroes,  in  Haiti,  285 

Agabama,  Rio,  47,  126 

Agassiz,  Alexander,  nomenclature  of  the 
Caribbean  deeps,  13;  deep-sea  explora- 
tions by,  14,  386 ;  on  the  structure  of  the 
Bahamas,  297 

Agouti :  in  Cuba,  55 ;  Porto  Rico,  150 ;  Santo 
Domingo,  250 

Agua  Alta,  189,  203.    See  also  Wag  Watee 

Aguada,  182 

Aguadilla,  city,  156, 161,  179 

Aguadilla,  province  and  department,  156, 
165,  179 

Aguas-Buenas,  151, 181 ;  cave,  151 

Aibonito,  152,  182 

Alabama,  8 ;  superstition  in,  398 

Alameda,  the,  Santiago,  129, 130 

Albemarle,  Lord,  captures  Havana,  64 

Albufera  de  Joyuda,  Lake,  148 

Aldama  family,  122 

Alligator-gar,  the,  56 

Allspice.    See  PIMENTO 

Almendares,  Rio,  116 

Almonds,  in  Trinidad,  367 

Altavela,  239 

Ambergris,  in  the  Bahamas,  300 

America,  Spain  loses  her  colonies  In,  65,  66 

American  Mediterranean,  1-3,  7-10,  13,  16, 
21,  24,  34,  87,  186,  237,  383,  385;  an  oceanic 
river,  9,  10;  fauna,  14-16;  submarine 
topography,  13 

Anasco,  182 

Anasco,  Rio,  148, 182 

Anchovy  Sink,  193 

Andean  Cordilleras,  3 

Andes,  the,  2-fi,  13 ;  earthquakes,  361 

Andros,  298,  299,  302 

Anegada,  15, 19,  21,  309,  311,  315 

Anegada  Passage,  16,  21,  22,  309,  318 

Anglo-American  Club,  Santiago,  130 

Angostura  bitters,  368 

Anguilla,  19,  23,  318,  319,  380 


Anguillan  Islands,  318,  325,  339 

Annatto,  in  Jamaica,  213 

Annatto  Bay,  186 

Anse  d'Hainault,  274 

Antigua,  19,  23-25,  76,  311,  319-325,  331,  404; 
agriculture,  323-325 ;  area,  19;  commerce, 
324,  325 ;  population,  19 ;  superstition,  395 

Antillean  mountain  system,  3-6,  27-31,  39, 
146,  147,  150,  183,  185,  190,  240,  241,  309,  381, 
382,  384,  385 

Antilles,  9,  11,  14,  16,  21,  22,  30, 145,  146, 150- 
153,  159,  186,  201,  203,  238,  242,  248-250,  256, 
257,  259,  270,  297-300,  318,  374,  381,  382,  384, 
385;  administrations,  32 ;  civilization,  32; 
destiny,  403;  east-and-west  trend,  385; 
fauna,  55, 382 ;  geographical  situation,  3-6; 
geological  structure,  382-386 ;  mineral  re- 
sources, 32 ;  "  the  Pearl  of  the,"  33,  53,  408; 
population,  32 ;  resources,  32 ;  rivers,  31, 
32 ;  seaboard,  31,  32 ;  yellow  fever,  60 

Antimony,  in  Santo  Domingo,  249,  272 

Appalachian  continent,  5 

Appalachians,  the,  29 

Aquin,  281,  282 

Arachnidae,  56 

Arawaks,  166 

Arcahaie,  264 

Areas  de  Canasi,  42 

Architecture :  in  Cuba,  110,111;  Porto  Bico, 
172,  174-178,  180,  181 

Arctic  Ocean,  10 

Arecibo,  city,  156, 179, 180 

Arecibo,  department,  156, 165 

Arecibo,  Rio,  148,  180 

Ariguanabo,  Lake,  47 

Armendaris,  Rio,  46, 110, 114 

Arrowroot:  in  Montserrat,  335;  St.  Vin- 
cent, 362 

Arroyo,  181 

Artibonite  River,  Santo  Domlngo,  31,  241, 
248,  264,  277,  278 

Aruba,  26.    See  also  Orcba 

Asia,  trade  with  the  United  States,  93 

Asphalt,  as  fuel,  380 ;  In  Barbados,  377,  380, 
381 ;  Cuba,  82-84, 380, 381 ;  Santo  Domingo, 
262,  272,  381 ;  Trinidad,  368,  369,  381 

Atares,  109 

Atlanta  "  Constitution,"  on  superstition  in 
the  South,  397 

Atlantic  Ocean,  2,  8-12,  16,  35,  297,  298,  306, 
318,  320,  328,  348,  366,  373,  375,  381,  382 

Atlantis,  the  myth  of,  2,  310,  381-385 

Atlas  Steamship  Company,  218,  273,  406,  407 

Atrato,  Gulf  of,  186 

Atrato,  Rio,  3,  6 

Auel,  262 


411 


412 


INDEX 


Austria,  beet-sugar,  77 

Aux  Cayes,  264,  267,  269,  274,  275,  281 

Avellaneda,  Gertrudis  Gomez  de,  101 

Aves  Island,  22,  24,  26 

Ay,  Rio,  126 

Azores,  373 ;  traders  from,  in  Antigua,  325 

Azua  de  la  Compostela,  247,  248,  259,  262 

Bacot,  J.  T.  W^.,  enumeration  of  the  Ba- 
hamas by,  22 

Bahama  Banks,  13,  383 

Bahamas,  8, 10, 16, 18,  20-22, 24, 25,  35, 186,  233, 
2'J6-304,  307,  381,  382,  404;  administration, 
25,  375 ;  altitude,  22 ;  area,  18, 297 ;  climate, 
299,  301 ;  connection  with  the  American 
Revolution,  300,  302;  enumeration,  22; 
fauna,  298,  299;  finances,  300,  304;  llora, 
299,  300 ;  fruits,  300 ;  industries  and  com- 
merce, 300, 301, 303 ;  occupied  by  England, 
300;  people,  301,302,  304;  population,  18, 
301-304 ;  separation  of  Turks  and  Caicos 
Islands  from,  304;  slavery,  300;  Spanish 
raids  on,  253 ;  transportation,  mail,  and 
cable  communications,  301;  water-supply, 
299,  303 ;  wreckers,  300 

Bahia  Honda,  38,  63,  86, 118 

Baird,  S.  F.,  deei>sea  explorations  by,  14 

Baker,  Captain,  establishes  the  Boston  Fruit 
Company,  210 

Balaga  Barracks,  San  Juan,  175 

Balearic  Islands,  relations  to  Spain,  69 

Baltimore,  trade  with  Jamaica,  218,  223 

Bamboos  :  in  Jamaica,  198 ;  Martinique,  354 

Bamboula,  the,  286 

Bananas,  use  of,  60,  61 :  in  Cuba,  76,  80,  81, 
91, 133, 136;  Haiti,  263. 272 ;  Honduras,  228; 
Jamaica,  188,  208,  210,  212,  214,  223,  228; 
Martinique,  350;  Nicaragua,  228;  Porto 
Rico,  160 ;  St.  Croix,  316 ;  St.  Kitts,  331 ; 
Santo  Domingo,  257,  272 

Bandruco  Mountains,  244 

Banes,  132 

Banian-tree,  in  the  Caribbees,  327,  331 

Bank  of  Guadeloupe,  341 

Bank  of  Spain  and  Porto  Rico,  175 

Banks  Strait,  9 

Baptists,  in  Jamaica,  207 

Baracoa,  41-43,  63,  64,  80,  81,  86,  124,  128,  132, 
133,  136 

Barahona,  259 

Barahona  Bay,  238,  244,  248 

Baraqui,  82 

Barbadian  Antilles,  308 

Barbados,  7,  12,  15,  22-24,  26,  166,  211,  307, 
308,  312,373-381,  384,404;  administration, 
375 ;  area,  19,  373,  376 ;  boatmen,  376,  378, 
379;  chief  justice,  392;  climate,  374;  the 
Coddrington  family,  321,  322;  commerce 
and  shipping,  313,  314,  374-377,  379 ;  com- 
munications with  New  York,  406;  cos- 
tume, 378;  education,  378;  emigration, 
370;  geology,  374,  377;  George  Washing- 
ton in,  377 ;  military  station,  376, 391 ;  peo- 
ple, 285,  377-379;  population,  19,  376-378; 
railroad,  375,  380 ;  relations  with  Virginia, 
377;  religion,  375;  social  progress,  283; 
tourists,  375-377,  379,  406,  407 

Barbuda,  23, 25,  319-323;  administration,  321, 
322 ;  area,  19, 320 ;  fauna,  150,  321 ;  popula- 
tion, 19 ;  wrecking,  321 

Barcelona,  137 ;  trade  wUh  Cuba,  92 

Barrier  reefs,  37,  38 

Barros,  181 

Bartlett,  J.  R.,  computation  of  the  velocity 
of  the  Gulf  Stream,  10 ;  deep-sea  explora- 
tions by,  14 

Bartlett  Deep,  4, 13,  185 

Basse  End,  St.  Croix,  316 

Basse-Terre,  Guadeloupe,  338,  339,  341,  358 


Basse-Terre,  St.  Kitts,  331 

Bassett,  on  Haitian  cannibalism,  392 

Batabano,  45,  64,  87,  88,  90,  113, 117,  124, 144 

Bath,  Jamaica,  195,  223,  225 

Bathsheba,  377 

Bayamo,  63,  127 

Bayamon,  city,  151,  156, 182 

Bayamon,  department,  156, 165 

Bayamon,  Rio,  148 

Bay  du  Marin,  348 

Bay  of  Fort-de-France,  348 

Bazelais'  revolution,  Haiti,  281 

Becquia,  363 

Beef  Island,  309 

Beeswax  :  in  Cuba,  91, 127, 131 ;  Porto  Bico, 
163 

Beet-sugar,  77,  78, 137,  209,  401 

Bejucal,  63,  88 

Belen,  College  de,  113 

Belgium,  Haitian  coflFee  in,  271 

Bellamar,  caves  of,  48,  49,  122 

Beriberi,  113 

Bermudas,  10, 16, 24, 373 ;  cable  communica- 
tions, 90;  communications  with  the  Ba- 
hamas, 301;  emigration  to  Turks  Island, 
304 

Berry  Island,  302 

Bethlehem  Steel  Company,  82 

Bilious  fever :  in  Cuba,  57 ;  Haiti,  279 

Biminis  Islands,  302 

Bird  Island,  22 

Birds :  in  the  Caribbees,  328 ;  Cuba,  56 ;  Porto 
Rico,  150 ;  Santo  Domingo,  250 

Bishop's  Cap,  242 

Bitumen.    See  Asphalt 

Black  Eagle,  the  conspiracy  of  the,  66 

Black  Mountains,  264 

Black  River,  193,  196,  223 

"  Blacks,"  in  Cuba,  103 

"  Blake,"  the  deep-sea  explorations  of  the, 
14 

Blake,  Sir  Henry,  governor  of  Jamaica,  217 ; 
on  the  West  Indian  negro,  390 

Blake,  Professor  W.  M.,  on  the  mineral  re- 
sources of  San  Domingo,  249,  258 

Blanca,  23 

Blanco,  Rio,  151 

Blind  fish,  56 

Blizzards,  12 

Bloodhounds,  French  use  of,  in  Haiti,  293 

Blue  Mountain  Peak,  187-189,  197 

Blue  Mountains,  Jamaica,  30,  50, 129, 150, 151, 
187-190, 196,  197,  200,  211,212,  240;  the  coffee 
Of  the,  80 

Boa,  the,  56 

Bobadilla,  Francisco  de,  imprisons  Colum- 
bus, 252 

Boca  del  Agua,  203.    See  also  BOG  Walk 

Hodden  Town,  cave  at,  234 

Bog  Walk,  203,  224 

Bog  Walk  Canon,  192 

Bohios,  79 

Bonao,  252 

Bonaparte,  Napoleon,  infamous  attack  on 
Haiti,  293,  294 

Bonnet-a-la-feveque,  242 

Bordeaux,  trade  with  Haiti,  273 

Boston,  superstition  in,  396, 397 ;  trade  with : 
Barbados,  377  ;  Jamaica,  210,  218,  223 

Boston  Fruit  Company,  the,  210,  218 

Boston  "  Post,"  account  of  superstition  in 
Boston,  396,  397 

Bottom,  Saba,  329 

Bounties,  401 

Bowden,  189 

Bowerbank,  Dr.,  220 

Boyer,  J.  P.,  President  of  Haiti,  296 

Brazil,  emancipation  in,  289 

Breadfruit :  in  St.  Croix,  316;  St.  Kitts,  381 


INDEX 


413 


Bribery,  in  Cuba,  68,  72,  73 

Bridgetown,  312,  374,  376,  379,  407 

Brimstone  Hill,  331 

Bristol,  England,  slave-trade  of,  904 

British  Antilles,  306 

British  Guiana,  366 

Broa  Inlet,  48 

Bronchitis,  in  Porto  Kico,  153 

Brownson  Deep,  13,  146 

Brujuelas  River,  248 

Bucaneers :  in  the  Bahamas,  300 ;  Cuba,  64, 
125 ;  Grand  Cayman,  234 ;  Jamaica,  204 ; 
the  Lesser  Antilles,  305,  306 ;  Porto  Rico, 
164;  8t.  Kitte,  332  ;  Uanto  Domingo,  238, 
239,  263,  261,  289 ;  Tortola,  315.  See  also 
Pirates 

Bucaneers'  Fort,  Cuba,  116 

*'  Buckra,"  230-232 

Buen  Ayre,  19,  23,  25,  366,  372 

Bu£f  Bay,  223 

Bull-fighting,  in  Cuba,  109 

Burial  of  the  dead  :  in  Haiti,  286 ;  Jamaica, 
395 

Busu,  Mount,  246 

Cabanas,  86,  87, 118 

Cabanas,  Rio,  47 

Cabanas  fortress,  Havana,  109 

Cabanilla,  83 

Cabanilla  and  Maroto  Railroad,  83 

Cabeceras,  63 

Cabeza  de  San  Juan,  180 

Cable,  George  w.,  on  obiism  in  New  Or- 
leans, 395,  396 

Cacique,  saline  springs  of  the,  161 

Cacti,  114 

Cadena,  Cape,  147 

Cadiz,  trade  with  Cuba,  93 

Cafetals,  131 

Caguas,  182 

Caibarien,  88,  123 

Caibarien  system  of  railways,  88 

Caicos  IsUnds,  22,  233,  298,  300,  302-304 ;  ad- 
ministration, 25;  connection  with  Ja- 
maica, 303,  304 

Caigo-o-no-Caigo,  183 

Calcareous  shells,  22 

California,  early  exploration,  104;  fruit- 
trade.  136 

Calle  Obispo,  Havana,  116 

Calle  O'Reilly,  Havana,  116 

Calzada  de  Esteban,  Matanzas,  121 

Camaguey,  02,  63, 100,  123,  127 

Camagueynos,  the,  100 

Cambridge  Basin,  193 

Cambridge  University,  England,  work  in 
Jamaica,  207 

Caminos  del  Rey,  90 

Campos,  Captain-General  Martines,  his  hu- 
mane administration,  69,  70,  73 

"  Camps  in  the  Caribbees  "  (Ober),  cited, 
338 

Camu,  River,  262 

Camuy,  161 

Camuy,  Rio,  148 

Canada,  trade  with  Jamaica,  216 

Canal  Mountains,  246 

Canary  Islands,  natives  in  Cuba,  142 ;  rela- 
tion to  Spain,  69  ;  sugar-cane  introduced 
into  Cuba  from,  64 

Cane ;  cane-sugar.    See  Sugab 

Cannibalism,  283,  287,  392,  393,  398 

Canonau,  363 

Cano  Tiburones,  Lake,  148 

Cantera,  110 

Cantera  family,  126 

Canuelo  fortress,  Porto  Rico,  174 

Caparra,  154 

Cape  Cruz,  29,  37,  39,  40 


Cape  Dame  Marie,  281 

Cape  Gracias  4  Dios,  186 

Cape  Haitien,  245,  262,  267,  269,  273-277,  293; 
cable  coiumunications,  91 ;  bombarded  by 
the  British,  275 ;  earthquakes,  275, 276 

Cape  Limbe,  244 

Cape  Maysi,  35,  44,  132, 136 

Cape  Plaisance,  244 

Cape  San  Antonio,  35,  37,  38,  40 

Cape  Tiburon,  186,  274,  281 

Caracas,  earthquake  in,  361 

Caraibe,  the,  338 

Carbet,  Mount,  345 

Carboniferous  period,  383 

Cardenas,  63,  84,  88,  98, 107, 130, 122, 123 

Cardenas  Bay,  83 

Caribbean  Sea,  the,  2,  4-11,  14,  16-18,  21,  24, 
29,  30,  34,  35,  44,  130,  145,  186,  188,  218,  221, 
234,  247,  248,  281,  297,  305,  306,  318,  345,  366, 

371, 382, 383, 385.  See  also  Amehican  Med- 
iterranean 

Caribbee  Islands,  21-24,  26,  297,  308,  309,  314, 
318,  345,  357-361,  363-366,  373,  375,  380,  381, 
384,  385;  area,  19;  climate,  327,  328,  342; 
communications  with  New  York,  405, 406 ; 
fauna,  328 ;  flora,  327,  331 ;  geological  fea- 
tures, 327-332,  334,  338-340,  342;  popula- 
tion, 19;  the  volcanic,  326-336 

Caribs :  in  Dominica,  343,  344 ;  Martinique, 
354, 355 ;  Porto  Rico,  166 ;  St.  Vinc«nt,  362 ; 
Trinidad,  369 

Carnival,  in  Havana,  111,  112 

Carolina,  connection  with  the  Bahamas,  300 

Carpet-baggers,  in  Cuba,  68 

Carriacou,  363 

Casa  Blanca,  San  Juan,  176 

Casa  de  Beneficencia :  in  Havana,  113;  San 
Juan,  175 

Casilda,  89, 126, 126 

Cassava:  in  Barbados, 378;  Jamaica,  231; 
Trinidad,  369 

Caste :  in  the  United  States,  390,  402 ;  th« 
West  Indies,  390,  391 

Castillo  del  Principe,  110 

Castle  of  San  Juan,  177 

Castries,  359 

Catano,  174 

Catarrh,  in  Porto  Rico,  163 

Catarro,  the,  55 

Cat  Island,  302,  303 

Cats :  in  Barbuda,  321 ;  Cat  Island,  303 

Cattle :  in  Auegada,  315 ;  AuguUla,  319;  the 
Antilles,  32 ;  Barbuda,  321 ;  the  Caribbees, 
20;  Cuba,  46, 78, 81,137;  Curasao,  371;  Do- 
minica, 342;  Grand  Cayman,  234;  Ja- 
maica, 198,  200,  213,  225 ;  Porto  Rico,  159- 
161, 168, 178, 179, 181, 183;  Santo  Domingo, 
250,  251,  253,  257,  262 

Caucasian  race,  in  the  West  Indies,  388, 389, 
400 

Cauto  River,  Cuba,  31,  40,  45,  47,  76, 137, 130 

Cave  Hall  Pen,  196 

Cave  of  Mexico,  196 

Cave  River,  196 

Caverns,  in  Cuba,  47-49 

Cave  Valley,  192 

Cayenne,  immigration,  344,  369 

Cayey,  152,  181 

Cayman,  the :  in  the  Isle  of  Pines,  66 ;  Santo 
Domingo,  250 

Cayman  Brae,  235 

Cayman  Islands,  25,  234,  235 

Cayo  del  Sabinal,  38 

Cayo  Romano,  36,  38,  86 

Cayos  de  las  Doce  Leguas,  38 

Cayo  Smith,  128 

Cedar :  in  Cuba,  53, 131 ;  Grand  Cayman,  234 ; 
Jamaica,  198 ;  Martinique,  346 ;  Porto 
Rico,  149 ;  Santo  Domingo,  267 


414 


INDEX 


Cedrela  odorata,  In  Cuba,  53 

Ceiba-tree  :  in  Jamaica,  396 ;  St.  Croix,  316 ; 
Trinidad,  367 

Central  America,  9, 17,  35,  186,  383 ;  the  con- 
tinent of,  1,  2,  4-6 ;  the  crocodile  of,  56 ; 
in  prehistoric  times,  2;  islands  formed 
from  continent  of,  24;  Spain  loses  her 
colonies  in,  65,  66;  volcanoes,  33 

Central  American  archipelago,  2 

Central  Dominican  Railway,  255 

Centrals,  77,  78 

"Century  Magazine,"  cited,  58 

Cereus,  114 

Cerro,  the,  116 

Cerro  del  Oro,  40 

Cerro  de  Sal,  259 

Cerro  of  Columbus,  262 

Cerro  Santo,  245 

Ceuta,  the  Spanish  prison  at,  69 

Chains,  Dr.  S.  E.,  on  the  sanitary  condition 
of  Cuba,  57 

Chalcedony,  in  Santo  Domingo,  249 

Champ  de  Mars,  Port-au-Prince,  280 

Chapapote,  83.    See  also  AsfhaI/T 

Charlestown,  Nevis,  333 

Charlotte  Amalia,  312 

Charms,  belief  in,  394-399 

Chester  River,  196 

Chesterfield  Sink,  193 

Chiapas,  4 

Chimborazo,  13 

China,  trade  with  the  United  States,  93 

Chinese  :  in  Cuba,  99, 103;  Jamaica,  226 

Chocolate.    See  CocOA 

Cholera  infantum,  58 

Chorerra,  46,  116 

Christian  Brothers,  in  Haiti,  269 

Christian  Church,  in  Jamaica,  207 

Christiansted,  St.  Croix,  316 

Christophe,  King,  242 ;  his  palace  of  Sans 
Souoi,  276 

Christ's  Church,  Barbados,  377 

Church  of  England,  in  Jamaica,  207 

Ciales,  151 

Cibao  Mountains,  241,  242,  246,  247 

Cibuco,  Rio,  148 

Cidra,  181 

Cienaga,  Lake,  148 

Cienagas,  44,  46,  143 

Cienfuegos,  37,  42,  46,  63,  79,  84,  86-88,  98, 107, 
•      122-124,  126,  141 

Cifuentas,  88 

Cigars,  Havana,  87.    See  also  TOBACCO 

Cimarrones,  in  Jamaica,  230 

Cinchona,  in  Jamaica,  189,  214 

Cinco  Reales,  129 

Cinco  Villas,  62,  63 

Cinnamon,  in  Trinidad,  367 

Civil  War,  Nassau,  N.  P.,  in  the,  302 

Clara,  valley  of,  Cuba,  49 

Clarendon  Mountains,  191 

Clarendon  Parish,  190,  195,  196 

Clarendon  Valley,  190-193 

Clay,  in  Cuba,  85 

Cleve,  P.  T.,  on  the  geology  of  Porto  Bico, 

150,  151 
Cleveland,  Grover,  Ms  rabbit's-foot  charm, 

398 
Cloud-bursts,  in  the  Caribbees,  328,  336 
Clouet,  General,  124 
Club  Nautica,  Santiago,  130 
Club  San  Carlos,  Santiago,  130 
Clyde  Steamship  Company,  Haitian  service, 

273 
Coal :  in  Porto  Rico,  162 ;  Santo  Domingo, 

249 ;  non-existent  in  Cuba,  84 
Coamo,  151 
Coamo,  Rio,  148 
Coast  Survey,  work  of  the,  U 


Coati,  the,  In  Santo  Domingo,  250 

Cobre,  84,  89 

Cobre,  Rio,  192,  197 

Cochinos  Inlet,  48 

Cock-fighting,  in  Porto  Rico,  168 

Cocoa  and  chocolate :  in  the  Antilles,  32 ; 
Cuba,  133 ;  Dominica,  342,  344 ;  Grenada, 
364 ;  Guadeloupe,  340 ;  Jamaica,  208,  213 ; 
Martinique,  348-350 ;  Porto  Rico,  160, 163, 
178,  179 ;  Santo  Domingo,  265-257,  269,  271, 
281,  289 ;  Trinidad,  368 

Cocoanuts:  in  the  Bahamas,  300 ;  Cuba,  133 ; 
Grand  Cayman,  235 ;  Haiti,  272 ;  Jamaica, 
188,  208,  224,  228,  235 ;  Porto  Rico,  179 ;  St. 
Croix,  316;  St.  Thomas,  312;  Trinidad, 
368 

Cocoloba  macrophylla,  in  Porto  Rico,  149 

Cocos  reefs,  38 

Coco-wood,  53 

Coddrington  family,  owners  of  Barbuda, 
321,  322 

Code  Napoleon,  in  Haiti,  266 

Coffee :  in  the  Antilles,  31,  32 ;  Cuba,  76,  80, 
131,  132,  136,  137;  Dominica,  344;  Guade- 
loupe, 340;  Jamaica,  80, 189,  208,  211,  212, 
215,  231 ;  Martinique,  348,  349 ;  Porto  Rico, 
159-161, 163, 178-182 ;  Santo  Domingo,  255- 
257,  269-272,  281,  289 ;  United  States,  403 ; 
West  Indies,  403 

College  de  Belen,  the,  113 

College  de  St.  Udefonsa,  San  Juan;  176 

College  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  San 
Juan,  175 

Colombia,  2-4,  8;  protectorate  of  Haiti, 
254;  topography,  240;  trade  vsith  Ja- 
maica, 217 

Colon,  7,  63,  88,  98,  211,  376 

"Colored,"  the  word,  103 

Colored  people.    See  Negboes 

Columbus,  Bartholomew,  imprisonment 
of,  252 

Columbus,  Christopher,  128,  132;  burial- 
place  of  his  family,  261 ;  cattle  of,  at  San 
Domingo  city,  261 ;  discovers :  Dominica, 
344;  Montserrat,  334;  Nevis,  333;  St. 
Christopher,  332 ;  Trinidad,  367 ;  the  Vir- 
gin Islands,  309;  first  landfall,  300; 
founds :  Concepcion  de  la  Vega,  262 ;  Port 
de  Paix,  276 ;  Puerta  Plata,  262 ;  his  name 
for  Cuba,  33 ;  imprisonment,  252 ;  in : 
Haiti,  276;  Porto  Rico,  154,  179;  Santo 
Domingo,  237,  245,  252;  the  "Jardines" 
of,  37,  38 ;  last  voyage,  123 ;  second  voy- 
age, 252 ;  statues  of,  122 ;  supposed  burial- 
place,  112, 113,  261 ;  third  voyage,  252 

Columbus,  Diego,  132 ;  castle  built  by,  261 ; 
colonizes  Cuba,  63 ;  settles  Santiago  de  la 
Vega,  222 

Compagnie  Gen6rale  Transatlantique,  Hai- 
tian service,  273 

Concepcion,  Matanzas,  122 

Concepcion  de  la  Vega,  252,  262 

Concepcion  sugar-estate,  77 

Conch,  the  pearl,  303 

"Conchs,"  in  the  Bahamas,  301 

Congregationalists,  in  Jamaica,  207 

Conjuring,  in  the  United  States,  394-399 

Consejo,  cave  of,  180 

Constancia  asphaltum-mine,  84 

Constancia  sugar-estate,  89 

Constant  Spring  Hotel,  Kingston,  221 

Constanzia,  Vale  of,  247,  248 

Consumption :  in  Cuba,  143 ;  Haiti,  279 ; 
Porto  Rico,  153 

Content  River,  195 

Coolies :  in  Cuba,  103 ;  Jamaica,  226 ;  Trini- 
dad, 369,  370 

Coopers  Island,  310 

Copellanias,  Rio,  47 


INDEX 


415 


Copper  :  in  the  Antilles,  32 ;  Cuba,  82,  84, 
85, 130, 141,  380 ;  Santo  Domingo,  268,  272, 
380 

Coquina,  110 

Coral  and  coral  reefs,  16, 16, 18,  20-24,  37,  85, 
144,  151,  234,  239,  297,  310,  339,  373,  374, 386 

Coral  Bay,  St.  John,  314 

Corazal,  151 

Cordilleran  continent,  the,  6 

Cordilleras,  the,  2-6,  27,  39,  383 

Corn:  in  Anguilla,3a9;  Cuba,  76;  Curasao, 
371 ;  Jamaica,  214 ;  Porto  Rico,  168 

Cornilliac,  Dr.  J.  J.  J.,  on  the  women  of  Mar- 
tinique, 355 

Cornwall  County,  Jamaica,  205 

Corral  Falso,  88 

Cortes,  Porto  Rico  represented  in  the,  155 

Cortez,  Hernando,  in  Trinidad,  368 

Costa  Rica,  4,  6,  8,  217,  228 

Cotton :  in  Martinique,  348 ;  Banto  Do- 
minga,  269,  271 ;  Tobago,  371 

Cow  and  Bull,  the,  299 

Crab  Island,  21,  183,  309,  311 

Cranes  Point,  377 

Creoles  :  in  Cuba,  67,  73,  101,  103,  104,  127 ; 
Curasao,  371 ;  the  Lesser  Antilles,  307 ; 
Porto  Rico,  166,  170;  the  Virgin  Islands, 
311 

Cretaceous  period  and  formations,  41,  43,  83, 
249, 310,  383,  384 

Crittenden,  the  shooting  of,  109 

Crocodiles  :  in  the  Bahamas,  298 ;  Central 
America,  56;  Florida,  56;  Isle  of  Pines, 
56 ;  Jamaica,  56, 199 ;  Santo  Domingo,  249 

Croix  des  Bouquets,  La,  280,  282 

Cromwell,  Oliver,  seizes  Jamaica,  203 

Crooked  Island,  302,  303 

Cruces,  88 

Cruelty,  in  Haiti,  289 

"Cruising  among  the  Caribbees"  (Stod- 
dard), cited,  330 

Crustacea,  14,  15 

Cruz,  Cape,  29, 37,  39,  40 

Cuba,  5,  9,  10,  12,  16-18,  21,  22,  24,  25,  30,  33- 
144,  183,  185,  186,  190,  191,  194,  198,  200- 
202,  208,  236,  238-240,  249,  252,  256,  258,  269, 
274,  277,  298,  376,  380,  381,  383-385,  400,  405, 
406,  408 ;  administrative  departments,  63 ; 
Africanization  of,  142,  164;    agriculture, 

64,  65,  76-81,  91,  135-139:  archbishopric, 
157;  architecture,  121,  124,  125,  128-130; 
area,  18,  34-36;  autonomy,  67,  70,  99, 156; 
baths,  49;  beauty  in,  lOl,  102;  blind  flsh, 
66;  building-material,  85;  business  af- 
fairs, 139;  cable  communications,  90,  91, 
276;  captain-general,  69-71;  carpet-bag 
government,  68 ;  caverns,  47-49, 122 ;  Chi- 
nese,  99,    103;    cities,    107-119;   civiliza- 

«-  tion,  32  ;  climate,  34, 50-52, 113, 136 ;  coa8^ 
Une  and  harbors,  34-38,  46,  48,  83,  86, 
87,  109,  110,  118,  120,  121,  123-125,  127-129, 
131-133, 138. 141 ;  colonization,  63, 64 ;  com- 
merce ana  transpoctation,  86-96;  com- 
munications with  New  York,  405,  406 ; 
communications  with  other  islands,  87  ; 
contrasted  with  Porto  Rico,  146,  146; 
coolies,  103 ;  courts,  70 ;  crime,  101 ;  a 
crown  colony,  69,  70;  declares  war 
against   Napoleon,   66;    decree  of   1826, 

65,  71 ;  despotism  in,  65-76,  99,  104,  106 ; 
diseases  and  sickness,  62,  63,  114; 
disenfranchisement,  101 ;  earthquakes,  62; 
ecclesiitstical  government,  74,  76 ;  educar 
tion,  70,  73-75, 113 ;  emancipation,  103, 104 ; 
emigration  to  San  Domingo,  255 ;  end  of 
the  Spanish  r(;gime,  134  et  seq.;  eras  of 
prosperity,  64,  67;  executions,  100;  ex- 
plorations, 39,  64;  extermination  of  the 
natives,  64;  fauna,  66,  66,  113;  ttnauces, 


72,  73;  first  governor,  108;  flsh,  47,  66; 
flora,  34,  38,  40,  41,  48,  53-55,  113,  129; 
fruits,  53,  80,  81,  94,  95 ;  fundamental  law, 
65,  71 ;  future  of  the  island,  134-144 ;  geo- 
graphical situation,  l,  3-5;  geographic 
subdivisions,  62-75 ;  geology,  384 ;  govern- 
ing class,  65, 66,68, 72-75, 99, 100 ;  highways, 
89,  90 ;  homes,  107, 108 ;  hurricanes :  1786, 
12;  1846,  52;  1896,  52;  importance,  34,  35; 
ingenuity  of  insurgents,  55 ;  insanity,  113 ; 
Insurgents'  refuges  and  strongholds,  42, 
45;  isolation,  87;  "The  Key  of  the  New 
World,"  33;  labor,  105, 135, 138, 139, 141, 142, 
389 ;  lack  of  energy  In,  98, 102 ;  lakes,  47 ; 
land  and  mineral  titles,  135;  Las  Casas' 
administration,  64,  65;  leprosy,  113,  114; 
losses  of  Cuban  and  Spanish  forces,  67; 
lottery,  72 ;  loyalty  to  Spain  (the  "  Ever- 
faithful  Island  "),  65,  66,  92;  maps  of,  36; 
maritime  activity,  64;  marriage,  75,  102- 
104 ;  massacres,  100,  106 ;  migration  from 
Jamaica  to,  203;  mineral  resources,  81- 
85,  91,  94,  130,  131,  136,  141,  142;  mineral 
springs,  49;  miscegenation,  104;  moun- 
tains, 27-29,  34,  36,  37,  39-47,  50,  125,128-131, 
133 ;  natural  bridges,  47,  49 ;  natural  divi- 
sions, 62 ;  never  connected  with  the  Amer- 
ican continent,  41 ;  "The  Pearl  of  the  An- 
tilles," 33, 53 ;  people,  97-106,387,389;  phys- 
ical features,  33  et  seq.;  "poiHiiaHon,  18, 
97, 106 ;  poultry,  81 ;  the  press,  71,  72 ;  pub- 
lic improvement*,  65, 135, 138-141 ;  quaran- 
tine against,  87,  405;  railways,  88,  89, 122- 
124,  126,  127,  130,  137-140;  rainfall,  61,  90; 
representation  in  the  Cortes,  70;  re- 
sources, 76-85 ;  revolts  in  :  1829, 66 ;  1844, 66 ; 
1849,  66,  67;  1850,  66,  67;  1851,  66,  67,  109; 
1866,  67 ;  1868,  66,  67,  108,  127 ;  1895,  66,  68 ; 
rights  of  speech,  71 ;  rivers,  31,  45-48,  60, 
90;  sanitation,  67-61,  70,  73,  107,  113,  114, 
140,  142,389;  ship-building,  64;  shipping, 
109, 120, 122-125, 129, 133, 141;  size  compared 
with  Spain,  36 ;  slave  plot,  67 ;  slavery,  64, 
204,  284;  snow,  51;  social  progress,  283; 
Spanish  army,  69;  Spanish  rule,  25,  291; 
spoliation  of,  65-75,  78,  92, 141 ;  starvation 
in,  106;  summer  resorts,  57;  tariff,  136; 
telegraph  lines,  90, 91 ;  timber,  41, 53, 54, 81, 
91,  94;  torture  in,  71;  trade  with:  Great 
Britain,  92 ;  Porto  Rico,  159, 160,  162, 179 : 
Spain,  92, 93 ;  United  States,  92-95 ;  United 
States'  intervention  in,  95, 96, 404, 408 ;  vir- 
tue in,  101, 102 ;  waterfalls,  47,  49 ;  wealth, 
91;  as  a  winter  resort,  142,  143;  yellow 
fever,  113, 121. 

Cubans,  their  cause,  101 ;  the  Cuba  of  the, 
63;  education  and  refinement,  101,  102; 
exiled,  101 ;  family  ties,  102 ;  hospitality, 
102;  In  Jamaica,  211;  penal  colony  of 
revolutionist,  144;  spoliation  and  exter- 
mination of,  65-75 ;  women,  101-103 

"Cuban  Saratoga,"  the,  49 

Cuchillas,  the,  42,  43,  48,  80 

Cul-de-sac,  Haiti,  264,  280 

Culebra,  21,  24,  182,  183,  309,  311 

Culebrinas,  Rio,  146 

Culebrita,  21 

Cuman&,  366 

Cuna-Cuna,  189 

Cuna-Cuna  Pass,  223 

Cupey  Mountain,  Cuba,  49 

Curacao,  23,  25, 151,  306, 366, 371, 372 ;  admin- 
istration, 26,  872;  area,  19,  371;  liqueur, 
872 ;  people,  388 ;  population,  19,  871 

Cutting-grass-spots,  195 

Cuyajabos,  Rio,  47 

Cuyul,  Rio,  151 

Cydidse,  the,  56 

Cyprinodontidse,  the,  56 


416 


INDEX 


Dame  Marie,  Cape,  281 

Dancing,  in  Huiti,  286,  287 

Danish  Antilles,  26,26,306,311-316;  Vlaiting, 
406 

Danish  people,  in  the  West  Indies,  388 

Davy,  Dr.,  on  tbe  Grenadines,  363 

Deans  River,  195 

Decree  of  1825,  Cuba,  65,  71 

Deep-sea  explorations,  13-16 

Deer,  in  Barbuda,  321,  322 

De  Grasse,  Admiral,  defeated  by  Bodney, 
360,  404 

De  la  Hotte  Mountains,  244 

Delgris,  S.  T.,  suicide  of  negroes  under,  340 

Demerara,  trade  witb  Barbados,  375 ;  visit- 
ing, 406 

Denmark,  West  Indian  possessions,  25,  26, 
306,  311-316;  tries  to  sell  St.  Thomas,  313 

Department  of  the  North,  Haiti,  267 

Department  of  the  South,  Haiti,  267 

Descalabrado,  Rio,  148 

Descourtils,  M.  S.,  researches  into  Haitian 
flora,  264 

D^sirade,  19,  23,  26,  325,  341,  373 

Despoblado,  250,  261 

Despotism:  in  Cuba,  66-76,  99,  104,  106; 
Haiti,  266,  266 

Dessalines,  Jacques,  Emperor  of  Haiti,  264, 
265 ;  issues  declaration  of  Haitian  inde- 
pendence, 277 

Deux  Mamelles,  338 

Dhool-dhools,  331 

Dialect:  in  Haiti,  286;  Jamaica,  232,  233, 
286 

Diamond  Rock,  Martinique,  364 

Diana  Key,  84 

Diarrhea  :  m  Cuba,  58 ;  Jamaica,  200 

Dickens,  Charles,  on  the  "nigger,"  227 

Diputacion  Provincial,  San  Juan,  176 

Divi-divi,  in  St.  Thomas,  314 

"  Doctor,"  the,  11 

Dogs,  in  Barbuda,  321 

Dogs,  the,  319 

Dominica,  23-25,  161,  236,  306,  326,  328,  329, 
337,  342-345,  352,  357-360,  401,  403,  404 ;  ad- 
ministration, 344;  agriculture,  343,  344; 
area,  19, 342 ;  climate,  342 ;  commerce,  342- 
344 ;  discovery,  344 ;  emigration,  344 ;  pop- 
ulation, 19,  343 ;  religion,  343 

Dominicans,  236 

Dondon,  242,  282 

Dougald,  Donald,  of  Barbuda,  322 

Drinking-water :  in  Cuba,  140,  141 ;  in  tbe 
tropics,  60 

DrouiUard,  280 

Drown  Island,  316 

Dry  Harbor,  196 

Dry  River,  196 

Dumas,  Alexandre,  Sr.,  281,  388 

«'  Duppy,"  the,  229,  232,  395 

Durocner,  Colonel,  engineering  work  of, 
244 

Dutch,  in  the  West  Indies,  388 

Dutch  West  Indies,  306,  366,  371,  372 

Dyewoods:  in  Grand  Cayman,  234;  Ja- 
maica, 213 

Dysentery:  in  Cuba,  67,  68,  140;  Jamaica, 
200;  Porto  Rico,  153 

Earthquakes,  reputed  destruction  of  Atlan- 
tis, 381;  at  Cape  Haitien,  275,  276;  in 
Caracas,  361 ;  Cuba,  52;  Guadeloupe,  341 ; 
Haiti,  275,  276,  280;  Jamaica,  221;  Marti- 
nique, 348,  353;  Port-au-Prince,  280;  St. 
Vincent,  361;  Santo  Domingo,  ?61,  280; 
West  Indies,  62,  305,  400;  in  1693,  221;  1770, 
280 ;  1812,  361 ;  1839, 353 ;  1842,  275 ;  1843, 341 
Eastern  Department  of  Cuba,  63 
Ebony :  in  Jamaica,  313 ;  Porto  Rico,  149 


Education :  in  Caba,  70, 73-76, 113 ;  Jamaica, 
206,  207,  214 ;  Porto  Rico,  157 

Edwards,  Bryan,  on  the  prosperity  of  Ja- 
maica, 204 

Eggers,  Baron  H.  P.  A.,  on  the  flora  of 
Porto  Rico,  149 

Eggs,  in  Jamaica,  236 

ElCobre,  130 

Electric  roads,  140 

Eleuthera,  298,  299,  302,  303 

Elfs,  belief  in,  396 

Eljunki,  133 

El  Potrerillo,  42 

El  Templada,  mineral  springs  of,  49 

Emancipation:  in  Brazil,  289;  Cuba,  103, 
104 ;  Guadeloupe,  340 ;  Haiti,  288,  289,  291, 
294;  Jamaica,  204,  206;  St.  Kitts,  331;  St. 
Thomas,  314;  Santo  Domingo,  237;  Tor- 
tola,  315 ;  United  States,  103 ;  West  In- 
dies, 103,  400 

Engano  Point,  241 

England,  American  colonial  revolution, 
290,  291;  bucaneers  of,  64,  263,  289;  cap- 
tures Havana,  64;  Cuban  i  ron- trade,  82 ; 
education  of  Cubans  In,  101;  emigration 
to  Jamaica,  204 ;  expedition  to  Haiti,  292 ; 
naval  preeminence,  360;  occupies  the 
Bahamas,  300 ;  struggles  in  the  West  In- 
dies, 64,  203,  238,  253,  292,  300,  360,  368,  400, 
404 ;  struggle  with  France,  360 ;  treaty  of 
Paris  (1763),  64;  urges  the  Independence 
of  Haiti,  294.    See  also  Gbeat  Bkitain 

English  Antilles,  306 

"English  in  the  West  Indies,  The," 
(Froude),  cited,  403 

English  race  in  the  West  Indies,  387-390 

Ennery,  278 

Enriquillo,  Laguna,  248 

Ensenada  Honda,  168 

Eocene  epoch  and  formations,  40,  41,  83, 
374 

Epping  Forest  Cave,  197 

Equatorial  current,  the,  10,  23 

Ermita  del  Santo  Cristo  Church,  San  Juan, 
175 

Escalera  de  Jaruco,  42 

Escaliers,  Les,  244 

Escribaiios,  182 

Esperanza,  126 

Espinosa,  on  the  Porto  Rican  people,  166 

Estevan,  an  early  negro  explorer,  104 

Estrella,  La,  128 

ktaag  Duricie,  281 

£tang  Sale,  249 

Europe,  beet-sugar  in,  137 ;  cable  communi- 
cations with  Cuba,  90 ;  conquered  by  the 
Atlanteans,  381 ;  trade  with :  Porto  Rico, 
162 ;  Trinidad,  367 

"  Ever-faithful  Island,"  the,  C6 

Evil  spirits,  belief  in,  394-399 

Ewarton,  192 

Executions,  in  Cuba,  100 

Exuma,  302 

Fairies,  belief  in,  396 

Fajardo,  158, 180,  181 

Faiardo,  Rio,  148 

Fallow-deer,  in  Barbuda,  321,  322 

Falmouth,  Jamaica,  223 

Familiarity,  in  the  United  States,  402 

Fer-de-lance  :  in  the  Caribbees,  328 ;  Marti- 
nique, 347,  351 ;  St.  Lucia,  359 

Fevers  :  in  Cuba.  57-61,  140, 143;  Haiti,  279; 
Jamaica,  200,  201;  Porto  Rico,  153;  West 
Indies,  388,  389 

Fig-tree  Church,  Nevis,  333 

Filibustering  expeditions,  81 

Fish  :  in  the  Bahamas,  20,  299 ;  Caribbees, 
20 ;  Cuba,  47, 56 ;  Great  AntUles,  20 ;  Haiti, 


INDEX 


417 


Fish— continued 
281;  Jamaica,  199;  Martinique,  347,  360; 
Porto  Rico,  150, 162, 179 ;  Trinidad,  369 

Flamencos,  Lake,  148 

Flamingos,  in  Porto  Kico,  150 

Flinter,  Colonel,  on  the  history  and  people 
of  Porto  Rico,  154, 167, 168 

Flogging,  in  Cuba,  67 

Flor  de  Carillo,  Trinidad  city,  125 

Flor  de  Cuba,  123 

Florida,  7-10, 14, 15,  24,186, 296-298, 301, 302, 381, 
383,  406 ;  communications  with  the  Baha- 
mas, 301, 302;  crocodiles,  56;  Cubans  in,  102; 
former  connection  with  South  America, 
2 ;  fruit  industry,  136 ;  the  great  frost,  210; 
oranges,  81 ;  sterile  lands,  33 ;  tobacco,  102 

Florida  Capes,  8 

Florida  Keys,  the,  15,  18 

Florida,  Strait  of.     See  STRAIT  OF  FLOBIDA 

Flying  fish,  in  Barbados,  376 

Folk-lore,  393-399 ;  in  France,  398, 399 ;  Haiti, 
286  ;  Jamaica,  227,  232,  233,  286 

Food-stuffs,  in  the  Antilles,  32 

Foraminifers,  16 

Fort-de-France,  273,  348,  349,  353 

Fort  Gustave,  St.  Bartholomew,  319 

Fort  Libert^,  274 

Fort  Royal,  353 

Fortunate,  on  Haiti,  282 

Fortune  Islands,  298,  299,  301,  302 

Fossils,  14 

France,  West  Indian  possessions,  25:  Do- 
minica, 343,  344;  Grenada,  364;  Guade- 
loupe, 337-342 ;  Martinique,  348 ;  Montser- 
rat,  334  ;  St.  Bartholomew,  319,  320 ; 
St.  Kitts,  332 ;  St.  Lucia,  358,  360 ;  St.  Mar- 
tin, 402 ;  Santo  Domingo,  237-239,  253,  254, 
289 ;  bucaneers  and  pirates  of,  64, 253, 289; 
cable  communication  with  Haiti,  276 ;  cru- 
elty in  the  West  Indies,  170;  diplomatic 
relations  with  Haiti,  270;  education  of 
Cubans  in,  lOl ;  education  of  Haitians  in, 
285,  286;  England's  struggle  with,  360; 
folk-lore,  398,  399 ;  Haitian  coffee  in,  271 ; 
Influence  of  the  Revolution  in  the  West 
Indies,  289,  290;  loses  Haiti,  254,  294 ;  loss 
of  West  Indian  possessions,  360 ;  occupa- 
tion of  Haiti,  273, 275-277, 293 ;  precipitates 
troubles  in  Haiti,  291,  293 ;  revolt  of  Haiti, 
65 ;  struggles  lor  the  West  Indies,  368, 400 ; 
trade  witli:  Haiti,  269, 271, 273 ;  Porto  Rico, 
162;  witchcraft  in,  394,  398,  399 

Frederiksted,  St.  Croix,  316 

Freebooting,  in  the  West  Indies,  400.  See 
aLso  Bucaneers;  Pirates 

Freemasonry,  in  Haiti,  267,  268 

Free  trade,  401,  406 

French  Antilles,  306 

French  race,  in  the  West  Indies,  887,  888, 
390,  394,  398,  399 

French  West  Indies,  visiting  the,  406 

Friends  of  the  Blacks,  the,  291 

Frou,  282 

Froude,  J.  A.,  on  the  West  Indies,  216,  226, 
343,  344,  387,  403,  408 

Fruits  :  in  the  Antilles,  31,  32  ;  Cuba,  80,  81, 
94,  95,  131-133,  135,  136 ;  Jamaica,  223,  231 ; 
Porto  Rico,  160,  178,  179,  181-183 ;  West  In- 
dies, 388,  403 ;  use  of,  60, 61.  See  also  spe- 
cific kinds 

Funda,  Lake,  249 

Funeral  customs,  in  Haiti,  286 

Furey,  280 

Fustic,  in  Cuba,  53,  81 ;  Jamaica,  198 

Gabb,    W.    M.,  investigates  mineral  re- 
sources of  Santo  Domingo,  246,  249,  267 
Galapagos  Islands,  the  tortoise  in,  160 
Galveston,  Texas,  7, 186 

27 


Gambling,  in  Porto  Rico,  167 

Gas,  in  Cuba,  380 

Genoa,  the  lemons  of,  136 

Georgia,  emigration  to  Turks  Island,  904; 
superstition,  397,  398 

Germany,  beet-sugar,  77;  commercial  in- 
fluence In  San  Domingo,  261 ;  diplomatic 
relations  with  Haiti,  270;  occupation  of 
Haiti,  277;  trade  with:  Haiti,  269,  274; 
Porto  Rico,  162 

Geysers,  in  Dominica,  342 

Gibara,  42,  86, 132 

Gibaros,  in  Porto  Rico,  166-168 

"  Gibraltar  of  the  New  'World,"  the,  277 

"  Gibraltar  of  the  \Vest  Indies,"  the,  331 

Ginger,  in  Jamaica,  208,  213,  215 

Ginger  Island,  310 

Glaciers,  in  North  America,  385 

Glass  Window,  Eleuthera,  299 

Gnomes,  belief  in,  396 

Goats:  in  Anegada,  315;  Barbnda,  321; 
Cuba,  81 ;  Santo  Domingo,  250,  255 

"  Goat  without  horns,"  the,  229 

Gobiernos,  63 

Gold  :  in  the  Antilles,  32 ;  Cuba,  64,  82,  380 ; 
Porto  Rico,  151 ;  Santo  Domingo,  252,  253, 
257,  258,  272,  380;  Trinidad,  367 

Gomez,  General,  69 

GonaTves,  264,  275,  277,  278 

Gonaives,  Gulf  of,  244,  248,  252,  278 

Gonave  Island,  239,  244,  264 

Gonave  Peninsula,  242 

Gordontown,  188 

Gosse,  P.  H.,  on  the  fauna  of  Jamaica,  199 

Gottschalk,  introduces  Adellna  Fatti  in 
Santiago,  130 

Gourde,  the,  269 

Govadonga,  San  Juan,  176 

Gracias  &  Dios,  Cape,  4, 186 

Granadilla,  the,  53 

Grand  Bourg,  342 

Grand  Cave,  197 

Grand  Cayman,  234,  235 

Grande  Anse  du  Diamante,  348,  849,  368,  364 

Grande  Rivifere  du  Nord,  282 

Grande-Terre,  Guadeloupe,  319, 826,  339, 341, 
373 

Grand  Savanna,  Dominica,  343 

Grand  Seminary  of  Haiti,  Paris,  268 

Grand  Turk  Island,  303,  304 

Gran  Hotel  Inglaterra,  La,  Havana,  110,  HI 

Gran  Piedra,  La,  40 

Grape-fruit,  in  Jamaica,  210 

Grapes,  in  Jamaica,  211 

Grazing,  in  Cuba,  81,  137 

Great  Abaco,  299,  302 

Great  Antilles,  the,  6,  8,  12,  20-24,  27-33,  146, 
185,  236,  238,  240,  296,  305,  309,  310,  380,  382- 
385;  American  domination  in  the,  404; 
area,  18,  21 ;  climate,  topography,  etc.,  21 ; 
the  geographic  center,  236 ;  mountains,  39; 
population,  18,  32 ;  rivers,  31,  32 

Great  Bahama,  302 

Great  Bahama  Bank,  298 

Great  Britain,  abolition  of  slavery,  204; 
American  tribute  to,  222 ;  beueflcence  of 
h«',r  rule,  32,  74 ;  bombards  Cape  Haitien, 
275 ;  coloinal  system,  90,  105,  201-208,  214- 
217,  229,  230,  233,  300,  304,  311,  325,  368-370, 
376,  401-404, 408 ;  diplomatic  relations  with 
Haiti,  270;  friendship  for  tlie  United 
States,  404;  intervention  in  Haiti,  408; 
loss  of  American  colonies,  3r>0:  posses- 
sions in  the  West  Indies,  24-26 :  Bahamas, 
300;  Dominica,  344;  Guadeloupe,  340; 
Haiti,  277;  Martinique,  348,  354;  Mont- 
serrat,  334,335;  St.  Kitts,  332;  St.  Lucia, 
368-360;  Virgin  Islands,  311,  314,  316;  re- 
spect for  law,  402;  trade  with:  Bahamas, 


418 


INDEX 


Great  Britain— conttrwted 
301 ;  Barbados,  375,  377 ;  Cuba,  92 ;  Gua- 
deloupe, 341 ;  Haiti,  269, 273 ;  Jamaica,  211, 
215,  218;  Porto  Rico,  159,  162;  Trinidad, 
367 ;  triumph  over  yellow  fever,  59 ;  West 
ludiau  naval  stations,  359.  See  also  Eng- 
land 

"  Great  hurricane  "  of  1786, 12 

Great  Inagua,  298 

Great  Plains,  the,  5, 11 

Great  River,  190,  191,  193, 196 

Great  Sound,  234 

Green  Bay,  201 

Green  Key,  298 

Grenada,  19,  22,  23,  25,  26,  326,  360, 362-365,  370 

Grenadines,  the,  18, 19,  22,  23,  25,  26,360,  363, 
364 

Gros  Morne,  277,  278,  282 

Crosse  Montagne,  338 

Guadeloupe,  12,  15, 23,  25,  34, 151,  306,  319,  325, 
326,  328,  329,  337-342,  344,  345,  352,  357,  358, 
360,  373,  403 ;  administration,  25,  341 ;  ag- 
riculture, 338-340;  area,  19,  338;  climate, 
339;  commerce,  341;  communications, 
337,  340;  currency,  341;  education,  341; 
finances,  341 ;  geological  features,  338- 
340 ;  mountains,  338 ;  people,  338,  340,  388 ; 
population,  19,  342;  quarantine  against, 
405 ;  trade  witli  Porto  Rico,  159, 160 ;  vis- 
iting, 406 

Guajaba,  38 

Guajataca,  Rio,  148 

Guamani,  Rio,  148 

Guanabacoa,  67,  63,  84,  98, 117 

Guanajay,  63,  88,  118 

Guanajay,  Rio,  47 

Guanajibo,  Rio,  148, 181 

Guanica,  151, 158 

Guanica,  Lake,  148 

Guantanamo,  37,  39,  U,  63,  86,  89,  90, 131, 132, 
136,  141 

Guarabo,  Rio,  125 

Guatemala,  4,  6,  8,  228 

Guayama,  city,  156 

Guayama,  department,  156,  165, 181 

Guayanes,  Rio,  148 

Guiana,  377 

Guinea-fowl,  in  Barbuda,  321 

Guinea-grass:  in  Grand  Cayman,  234;  St. 
Thomas,  312 ;  Santo  Domingo,  248 

Guines,  63,  88,  117 

Gulf  of  Atrato,  186 

Gulf  of  Gonalves,  244,  248,  252,  278 

Gulf  of  Honduras,  the,  9,  186 

Gulf  of  Maracaibo,  365 

Gulf  of  Mexico,  2,  5,  7-11,  13, 16, 17,  21,  34,  35, 
104,  382,  385 

Gulf  of  Paria,  366,  367 

Gulf  of  San  Nicolas,  252 

Gulf  Stream,  9,  10,  299,  383 

Gun  Key,  234 

Gurabo,  151 

Habana,  foundation  of,  64 

Haiti,  26,  35,  104,  105,  186,  201,  202,  230,  238, 
244,  246,  248,  250-254,  256,  259,  338,  380,  385  ; 
administration,  25,  266;  agriculture,  271, 
272,  280 ;  area,  263 ;  army,  266,  267 ;  auton- 
omy, 291;  cable  communication,  276; 
cannibalism,  392 ;  ceded  to  France,  254 ; 
citizenship,  265,  266;  civilization,  32;  cli- 
mate, 276,  277,  279,  280;  coast-line  and 
harbors,  245,  264,  273-278,  280-282;  Code 
Napoleon,  266;  commerce,  269,  273,  274; 
communications  with :  New  York,  405, 
406;  St.  Thomas,  313;  concordat  with 
Rome,  267,  268 ;  dialect,  286 ;  diplomatic 
relations,  270 ;  diseases,  279 ;  earthquakes, 
275,  276,  280 ;  education,  265,  268,  269,  285  ; 


empire  of  Dessalines,  264;  English  and 
Spanish  expeditions  to,  292 ;  expulsion  of 
the  French  from,  294 ;  finances,  269 ;  finan- 
cial probity,  270 ;  flora,  264 ;  French  cruel- 
ties in,  170;  French  invasion  of,  293; 
French  possession,  289;  fruit,  263,  272; 
hostility  to  San  Domingo,  251,  202,  254; 
Immigration,  295;  islands  attached  to, 
264 ;  language,  285,  286 ;  legislation,  266 ; 
maroons,  242 ;  minerals,  272  ;  money,  269 ; 
morality,  286-289 ;  mountains,  27-29,  39, 
263,  264, 279,  280 ;  name,  236,  240 ;  navy,  267  ; 
negro  nomenclature,  287  ;  peninsulas,  29, 
30;  people,  170,  267-269,  284-295,  388,  392, 
393,  396,  398,  399;  population,  283,  284; 
postroffice,  272 ;  press,  265 ;  quarantine 
against,  405 ;  race  hatred  in,  291,  292,  294 ; 
railways,  276,  278 ;  rainfall,  273 ;  recogni- 
tion of  its  independence,  267;  religion, 
265,  267-269  ;  the  republic,  236,  242,  254,  263- 
295 ;  revolt  in,  65 ;  rivers,  264,  276,  278,  281, 
282  ;  roads,  272,  273 ;  shipping,  272-275,  282 ; 
slavery,  284,  285,  287,  289-293 ;  social  prog- 
ress, 283,  287-289,  294,  295  ;  Spanish  posses- 
sion, 289;  stormy  history,  284,  289-295; 
struggles,  408;  superstition,  267,  283,  287, 
290 ;  union  with  San  Domingo,  295  ;  va- 
rious forms  of  government,  294, 295 ;  vau- 
douxism,  393,  396,  398,  399 ;  vicissitudes  in 
her  history,  254 ;  visiting,  406 

Haitian  Sea,  the,  9 

Halifax,  N.  S.,  cable  communications,  90; 
trade  and  communications  with  the  Ba- 
hamas, 301,  303 

Hamburg- American  Packet  Company,  West 
Indian  service,  313 

Hamburg  Mail  Steamship  Company,  Hai- 
tian service,  274 

"HamTky,"  203 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  333,  388 

Hanover,  191,  195 

Harbor  Island,  302 

Harmigueros,  151 

"Harnt,"  the,  229;  in  the  United  States, 
395.    See  also  Superstition 

Harris,  Joel  Chandler,  233 

Hart,  Captain  John  S.,  Cuban  interests,  81 ; 
filibustering,  81 ;  conviction,  81 

Hatillo  Maimon,  245 

Haunts,  belief  in,  395.  See  also  "  Harnts"  ; 
Superstition 

Havana,  35,  38,  40-42,  45-48,  62-66,  69,  71,  74, 
75,  85-90,  107-119,  122,  123,  126,  127,  141,  145, 
185,211,260;  bishopric,  74 ;  buildings,  110; 
cable  communications,  90;  captured  by 
the  English,  64, 204 ;  carnival,  117 ;  cathe- 
dral, 74,  112, 113 ;  charities,  113 ;  cigars, 
80,  87;  climate,  50-52;  Columbus's  re- 
mains, 261 ;  costume.  111,  116 ;  diseases, 
68,  59 ;  foreign  trade,  115 ;  fortifications, 
64;  foundation,  64,  108;  Gran  Hotel  In- 
glaterra,  110,111;  hurricane  of  1846,52; 
industries,  117 ;  the  "  Key  of  the  New 
World,"  33, 108 ;  lottery,  72 ;  mortality,  57, 
117;  motto,  33,  108;  people,  59,  103,  108, 
117 ;  population,  98,  99 ;  the  Prado,  111 ; 
sanitation,  118,  314;  society,  116,  117; 
Tacon's  improvements  in,  66,  71 ;  theater 
and  opera,  ill,  112;  tonnage,  87;  trade 
with  Haiti,  274 ;  University,  75,  112,  113 ; 
visiting,  406 ;  Volunteers,  100,  111 ;  water- 
supply,  140 

Havana,  Bishop  of,  statement  as  to  inter- 
ments, 106 

Havana,  province,  41,  44,  46,  62,  84,  156; 
area,  97 ;  population,  97 ;  reconcentrados 
in,  106 

Havre,  trade  with  Haiti,  273 

Hawaii,  United  States'  annexation  of,  404 


INDEX 


419 


•'Hayti;  or.  The  Black  Republic"  (St. 
John),  cited,  283,  392 

Hazard,  Samuel,  on  the  Cuban  character, 
102 ;  on  the  city  of  Cardenas,  122  ;  on  the 
8an  Domingoans,  259 

Hearn,  Lafcadio,  on  the  appearance  of 
Nevis,  332;  on  the  appearance  of  St. 
Kitts,  330 ;  on  the  Martinique  Jardin  des 
Plantes,  351-363 ;  on  the  people  of  Mar- 
tinique, 354,  355,  387;  his  "  Two  Years  in 
the  French  West  Indies,"  cited,  338 

Hector  River,  191,  192,  196 

Helix  picta,  56 

Hematite,  in  Cuba,  82 

Hemp,  in  Jamaica,  214 

Henn,  King  of  Haiti,  275 

Heredia,  101 

Hermanos,  Marques  dos,  114 

Hermanos,  Marquis  d',  on  the  character  of 
Toussaiut  L'Ouverture,  294 

Herrera,  Antonio,  123 

Heureaux,  General  Ulysses,  President  of 
San  Domingo,  265 

Hicks  River,  196 

Hides :  in  Barbuda,  322 ;  Cuba,  131 ;  Porto 
Rico,  161 ;  Santo  Domingo,  255 

Highways  :  in  Cuba,  89 ;  Jamaica,  90 

Himalayas,  31 

Hispaniola,  236 

Hoe,  Rio,  196 

Hole  in  the  'Wall,  Great  Abaco,  299 

Holguin,  63,  98,  107,  126,  127 

Holland,  manufacture  of  curagao  In,  372 ; 
pirates  of,  64;  possession  of:  Curacao, 
371;  St.  Martin,  320,  402;  trade  with: 
Haiti,  273;  Trinidad,  367;  West  Indian 
possessions,  25,  26,  328-330,  366,  371,  372 

Honduras,  4,  8,  13,  186,  228;  deportation  of 
Caribs  to,  362 

Honduras,  Gulf  of,  186 

Honduras  Sea,  24 

Honey :  in  Cuba,  91,  127 ;  Porto  Rico,  163 ; 
Santo  Domingo,  256,  269 

Hoodooism,  in  the  United  States,  394-399. 
See  also  Vaudoox  ;  Vaudouxism  ;  Voo- 

DOOISM 

Hope  Gardens,  Jamaica,  214 

Hope  River,  188 

Horses:  in  Anguilla,  319;  Barbuda,  321; 
Cuba,  81,  111,  137;  Grand  Cayman,  234; 
Jamaica,  216 ;  Porto  Rico,  161 ;  Santo  Do- 
mingo, 250 ;  Tobago,  371 

Horseshoe  Reef,  16,  316 

Hospitality,  in  Porto  Rico,  167 

Hospital  of  Santa  Rosa,  San  Juan,  176 

Hotel  Inglaterra,  San  Juan,  175 

Houlemont,  the,  338 

Howell,  J.  C.,  deep-sea  explorations  by,  14 

Humacao,  city,  156,  181 

Humacao,  department,  166, 165 

Humacao,  Rio,  148 

Human  sacrifices,  in  Jamaica,  229.  See 
also  Cannibalism 

Humboldt,  Baron  P.  H.  A.  von,  on  the 
scenery  of  Cuba,  42 ;  climatic  records  in 
Cuba,  52;  on  the  flora  of  Cuba,  53 

Humidity,  13 

Humming-bird,  the,  66 

Hurricanes,  12,  62,  305;  in  Antigua,  326; 
Cuba,  12,  52 ;  Guadeloupe,  341 ;  Marti- 
nique, 348 ;  Montserrat,  336 ;  Porto  Rico, 
162 ;  St.  Thomas,  312, 313 ;  in  1786, 12  ;  1819, 
312;  1837,  312;  1846,  62;  1867,  313;  1896,  62, 
336 

Hyde,  John,  statistics  of  Cuban  trade  by, 
93-96 

Hygiene,  rules  of,  60,  61 

Hypnotism,  connection  with  witchcraft, 
394 


Ice,  in  Jamaica,  216 

Icotea  de  Limon,  249 

Iguana :  in  Cuba,  55 ;  Santo  Domingo,  250 

lie  de  la  Tortue,  239,  250,  276 

lie  du  Rhone,  363 

Illegitimacy,  in  Jamaica,  228 

India,  coolies  in  Trinidad  from,  369 

Indian  corn,  63 

Indians:  in  Porto  Kico,  166;  Santo  Do- 
mingo, 238 ;  murder  of  Columbus's  men 
by,  252 

Indigo,  in  Haiti,  272,  289 

Injuriado,  79,  80 

Inquisition,  in  Santo  Domingo,  263 

Insanity,  in  Cuba,  113 

Insects,  in  Jamaica,  199 

Institute  of  Jamaica,  206 

Intendencia,  the,  San  Juan,  175 

Intermittent  fever :  in  Cuba,  57 ;  Porto  Bico, 
153 

Intestinal  diseases,  68 

Intransigents,  99 

Ipswich  River,  193 

Ireland,  emigration  to  Jamaica,  203, 204 

Irish  dialect  among  Bahama  negroes,  301 

Irish  negroes,  390 

Iron :  in  the  Antilles,  32 ;  Cuba,  81,  82,  131, 
141,  380;  Porto  Rico,  151,  162;  Santo  Do- 
mingo, 245,  258,  272,  380 

Ironwood,  in  Martinique,  346,  347 

Isabella,  Santo  Domingo,  245,  252 

Isabel  Segunda,  183 

Islas  de  Pasaje,  183 

Isle  of  Pines,  24,  36,  38,  44,  63,  56, 117, 124,  136, 
143,  144,  183;  cable  communication  with 
Havana,  90;  oranges,  81;  people,  102; 
Spanish  penal  institution,  69 

Isthmus  of  Panama,  35,  381;  communica- 
tions "With  New  York,  405 

Italy,  negro  soldiers  in,  340;  United  States' 
trade  with,  93 

Jacaguas,  Rio,  148 

Jacmel,  245, 273-275,  281,  282 

Jagua,  Bay  of,  123 

Jamaica,  4,  7,  9, 11-13,  16,  21, 24-26,  35,  56, 129, 
150, 185-236,  238,  240,  249,  256,  393,  404 ;  abo- 
lition of  slave-trade,  204 ;  administration, 
25,  376;  administrative  connection  with 
Turks  and  Caicos  islands,  303,  304;  agri- 
culture, 204,  208-235,  228 ;  the  alphabet  in, 
232,  233 ;  apprenticed  labor  in,  370 ;  area, 
18, 146,  147, 186,  208,  226 ;  attached  islands, 
233-235;  British  rule,  201-208,  214-217; 
cable  communications,  90,  276;  caverns, 
196,  197;  cities  and  villages,  219-223;  cli- 
mate, 200, 201,  219,  235 ;  coast-line  and  har- 
bors, 186,  188,  190,  193,  194,  197,  200, 
223,  224,  234,  235;  communication  with: 
Cuba,  87;  New  York,  405,  406;  Cubans 
in,  102 ;  death-rate,  201,  389 ;  dialect, 
232,  233,  286 ;  diseases,  200,  201 ;  disturb- 
ances in,  205;  earthquakes,  221;  econ- 
omy, 211 ;  education,  206,  207,  214 ;  eman- 
cipation, 204,  205;  emijfration  to  Haiti, 
295 ;  English  possession  of,  360 ;  expulsion 
of  yellow  fever  from,  59;  fauna,  199,  200, 
206 ;  finances,  207,  208 ;  flora,  188,  189, 196, 
197-199,  206;  fruit,  188,  198,  210,  211,  214; 
geographical  situation  and  features,  3,  4, 
185  et  seq.;  geological  features,  189-194; 
healthfulness,  57  ;  nospitality,  202 ;  hotels 
and  inns,  225;  judiciary,  206;  labor,  142; 
markets,  231,  232;  maroons,  104 ;  military 
station,  359  ;mineral  springs, 226 ;  miscege- 
nation, 226;  morality,  228-230;  mountains, 
27-31,  186-194,  196,  197,  200.  229,  230;  name, 
203 ;  people,  203-206,  207,  214,  216,  219,  22»- 
236,  286,  389;  political  divisions,  206 ;  popu- 


420 


INDEX 


Jamaica— «m<in«ed 
lation,  18,  225,  226;  prison  system,  206; 
railways,  209,  216,  217,  223,  228 ;  religion, 
207 ;  rivers,  191-197  ;  roads,  90, 217, 224;  sani- 
tation, 105,  200-202.  205, 206 ;  savajcery,  229 ; 
seized  by  the  English,  203;  shipping,  209- 
211,  217,  218,  223,  235  ;  Spanish  occupation, 
203 ;  summit  of  prosperity,  204 ;  supersti- 
tion, 229,  395,  396 ;  telegraph  lines,  217 ; 
trade-winds,  11 ;  trade  with  Barbados,  375 ; 
visiting,  406 

Jamaica,  Cuba,  89 

Jamaica  Agricultural  Society,  214 

Jamaican  Channel,  the,  16 

Japan,  trade  with  the  United  States,  93 
ardin  des  Plantes,  Martinique,  351-363 
ardines,  the,  37,  38 
ardinillos,  the,  38,  44 
iaruco,  63 
atibonico,  Rio,  47 
ava,  sugar  in,  77 
ean  Rabel,  282 
effrad.  General,   President  of  Haiti,  268, 
283,  295 

iferfcmie,  274,  275,  281 
erusalem,  Jamaica,  193 
esus  del  Monte,  116 
ews,  in  Jamaica,  203,  204,  207,  233,  326,  227 
Jiguani,  63 
Jimonea,  243 
John  Crow  Hill,  189 
Josephine,  Empress,  352,  353,  388 
''Journal  of  American  Folk-lore,"  cited,  399 

iuacaro,  123 
ulian  II,  founds  bishopric  of  Porto  Rico,  157 
"Jumbies,"  229,  395 

Sunki,  the,  43 
upiter  Inlet,  10 
uragua,  82,  89,  131 
uragua  Company,  the,  82 
urassic  period  and  formations,  40,  41 

Kaja  de  Muestos,  151 

Kenskoff,  280 

Kentucky,  the  caves  of,  49 

"  Key  of  the  New  World,"  the,  33,  108 

Keys,  21,  35-38,  44,  132,  235.     See  also  REEFS 

Key  West,  35,  90 

King's  House,  Kingston,  221,  232 

Kingsley,  Charles,  on  the  Grenadines,  363 ; 
on  Jamaica,  225 ;  on  the  town  of  St. 
Thomas,  312 ;  on  the  Virgin  Islands,  310 

Kingston,  Jamaica,  186,  188, 189,  194, 197,  200, 
206,  207,  211,  215-217,  219-224,  226,  229;  Cli- 
mate, 219 ;  earthquake  of  1693,  221 ;  liopu- 
lation,  219 ;  society,  226 ;  trade- winds,  11 

Kingstown,  St.  Vincent,  26,  361,  362 

King's  Valley,  193 

Kittefonians,  331 

Krakatau,  explosion  of,  361 

Labor :  in  Antigua,  324 ;  Barbados,  376, 378, 
379;  Costa  Rica,  228;  Cuba,  105,  135,  138, 
139, 141, 142,  389 ;  Guatemala,  228 ;  Hondu- 
ras, 228 ;  Jamaica,  142,  226-228,  370 ;  Mar- 
tinique, 356;  Nicaragua,  228;  Panama, 
228;  Porto  Rico,  159,  160,  168,  172,  175,  178, 
182,  184,  389 ;  St.  Kitts,  331,  332 ;  St.  Vin- 
cent, 362 ;  Trinidad,  369,  370 ;  West  Indies, 
400-402 

La  Brea,  368,  369^ 

La  Caimanera,  89 

La  Capilla  church,  San  Juan,  175 

La  Carolina,  161 

La  Carolina  sugar-plantation,  131,  132 

La  Catalina,  88 

La  Chameau,  339 

La  Convalecencia,  182 


La  Croix  des  Bouquets,  380,  282 

La  Cruz,  129 

L'Acul  du  Nord,  276 

Ladder,  the,  Saba,  329 

La  Ferriire,  fortress  of,  242,  276 

Laguna  Enriquillo,  248 

La  Haute  Mountains,  264 

La  Isabella,  88 

La  Miranao,  114 

Landholding,  In  the  West  Indies,  401,  402 

Land-turtles:  in  Barbuda,  150;  Santo  Do- 
mingo, 250;  Sombrero,  150;  South  Amer- 
ica, 150;  Trinidad  (island),  150 

La  Pila,  mineral  springs  of,  49 

La  Plaine  du  Nord,  276 

La  Punta,  fort  of,  108 

Lares,  Porto  Rico,  152, 179 

Las  Cahobas,  282 

Las  Casas,  Bishop  Bartolomfe,  on  the  Bay 
of  Jagua,  123 

Las  Casas,  Captain-General,  brilliant  rule 
in  Cuba,  64-66,  113 

Las  Delicias,  Playa,  178 

La  Selle  Mountains,  244 

La  Soufriere,  Guadeloupe,  338 

La  Soufriere,  St.  Lucia,  357 

La  Soufriere,  St.  Vincent,  361 

Las  Playas,  88 

Las  Roques,  23 

Las  Tunas,  63,  89 

Latin  races  :  in  America,  166, 167 ;  Cuba, 
142 ;  West  Indies,  388 

La  Tortue  Island,  264 

La  Union,  88 

La  Vega,  259 

La  Vega,  city,  245 

"  Leeward,"  the  word,  11 

Leeward  Islands,  25,  297,  306,  311,  322,  335, 
375 

Le  Fran9ois,  353 

Lemons :  in  Cuba,  131, 132, 136;  Haiti,  272; 
Jamaica,  210;  Porto  Rico,  150,  179;  St. 
Croix, 316 

Le  Montine,  353 

Le  Moule,  341 

L^ogane,  264,  282 

L^pidosteus,  the,  56 

Leprosy,  in  Cuba,  113, 114 

Les  Escaliers,  244 

"  Les  Pays  des  Revenants,"  345 

Les  Saintes,  339,  341 

Lesser  Antilles,  16,  21,  160,  162,  209,  217,  218, 
236,  273,  297,  305-308,  311,  312,  323,  332,  335, 
359,  365,  371,  382,  401 ;  English  supremacy 
over,  404 ;  immigration,  389;  slavery,  305- 
307 ;  trade  with :  Haiti,  273 ;  Jamaica,  217, 
218 ;  Porto  Rico,  162 

Lia  Minga,332.    See  also  ST.  CHRISTOPHER 

Liberian  coffee,  in  Jamaica,  212 

Lignite,  in  Santo  Domingo,  249 

Lignum-vitae  :  in  Cuba,  53 ;  Haiti,  271 

Liguanea  plain,  188,  194 

L'lle-a-Vache,  264 

Limbe,  282 

Limbe,  Cape,  244 

Limes :  in  Cuba,  131, 132,  136 ;  Dominica, 
342,  344 ;  Jamaica,  210;  Montserrat,  335 

Limonar,  Cuba,  49 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  recognizes  the  inde- 
pendence of  Haiti,  267 

Little  Cayman,  235 

Little  Monkey  Island,  183 

"  Little  Paris,"  Haiti,  275 

Liver  complaints  :  in  Cuba,  57 ;  Porto  Rico, 
153 

Liverpool,  England,  slave-trade  of,  204 

Lizards,  in  Santo  Domingo,  250 

"Llave  del  Nuevo  Mundo,"  108.  Bee  also 
"  Key  of  the  New  World" 


INDEX 


421 


Logwood :  in  Cuba,  53,  81 ;  Jamaica,  198 ; 
Santo  Domingo,  255,  269,  271 

Loiza,  Rio,  148 

Loma  Diego  Campo,  245 

Lomas  de  Camoa,  42 

Lomo  del  Puerto,  126 

London,  commmiications  with  the  Baha- 
mas, 301 ;  Cubans  in,  101 ;  death-rate,  58 

Long,  on  the  climate  of  Grand  Cayman, 
235 

Long  Island,  Bahamas,  298,  302 

Long  Key,  302 

Lopez,  General  Narciso,  revolt  of,  6C,  67 

Los  Molinos,  Matanzas,  122 

Los  Roques,  365,  366 

Lottery,  the,  in  Cuba,  72 

Louisiana,  8;  French  colonial  life  In,  338; 
protection  of  sugar-planters,  404 ;  sugar- 
lands,  76 ;  voodooism,  393-396 

L'Ouverture,  Toussaint,  254,  277,  278, 292-294 

Lung  troubles,  in  Cuba,  143 

Lynching,  in  the  United  States,  390 

Maceo,  Antonio,  104,  132 

Machete,  the,  in  Porto  Rico,  168 

Machina  \A'harf,  Havana,  110 

Macoris,  259 

Madrid,  inquiry  into  Cuban  wrongs  at,  67 

Madruga,  mineral  springs  of,  49 

Magari,  Rio,  47 

Magdalena,  Rio,  3 

Magnetic  iron,  in  Santo  Domingo,  245 

Mahan,  Captain,  records  Rodney's  victory, 
360 

Mahogany :  in  tbe  Bahamas,  299 ;  Cuba,  53, 
81,  91,  131;  Grand  Cayman,  234;  Mar- 
tinique, 346,  347;  8t.  Croix,  316;  Santo 
Domingo,  255,  257,  264,  271 

Maize,  in  Porto  Rico,  160 

Maja,  the,  56 

Malachite,  in  Porto  Rlco,  151 

Malaria:  in  Cuba,  121 ;  Haiti,  279 ;  Jamaica, 
20() ;  West  Indies,  61,  389 

Malarial  fever,  57,  61 

"  Mamposteria,"  260 

Manai,  Rio,  248 

Manatees :  in  Bahamas,  298 ;  Cuba,  66 ;  Ja- 
maica, 199 

Manati,  Rio,  Cuba,  126 

Manati,  Rio,  Porto  Rico,  148 

Manchester  Parish,  191,  193,  196,  197,  212 

Mandel  de  los  Negros  Marron,  244 

Mandeviile,  225 

Manganese :  in  the  Antilles,  32 ;  Cuba,  82, 
83, 130,  131,  380 ;  Santo  Domingo,  249,  272, 
380 

Mangos :  in  Haiti,  272 ;  Jamaica,  198 ;  Porto 
Rico,  150,  160;  St.  Croix,  316;  St.  Kitts, 
331 

Mangrove  islands,  15,  24,  37  . 

Mangroves  :  in  Bahamas,  299 ;  Porto  Rico, 
174 

Manioc,  53 

Manjack,  in  Barbados,  377,  381 

Manteca,  203.    See  also  Montego 

Manzanilla  Bay,  38,  238,  239,  241,  248 

Manzanillo,  45,  6.'{,  86,  98,  107,  127 

Maracaibo,  the  Gulf  of,  3,  365 

Marble,  in  Santo  Domingo,  249 

Margarita,  19,  23,  365,  372 

Maria  Galante,  19,  23,  25,  318,  319, 326, 839, 341, 
342,  373 

Marianao,  57,  88,  117 

Maricao,  152 

Mariel,  40,  118 

Marigot,  St.  Martin,  320 

Marina,  Porto  Rico,  174 

Marine  fauna  and  flora  :  Bahamas,  398;  Car- 
ibbean Sea,  14-16 


Maroons :  in  Haiti,  242 ;  Jamaica,  104,  206, 
230 

Maroto,  83 

Marriage  :  in  Cuba,  74,  102-104 ;  Haiti,  286 

Marseilles,  the  lemons  of,  136 

Martin,  Montgomery,  on  the  island  of  St. 
Lucia,  357 

Martinique,  23,  25,  34,  151,  201,  202,  306,  326, 
328,  329,  334,  337,  338,  340,  342,  345-360,  403 ; 
administration,  25,  348 ;  agriculture,  338, 
348,  349  ;  altitude,  23 ;  area,  19, 345 ;  cable 
communications,  363;  climate,  347,  348; 
commerce,  348  ;  costume,  354,  355 ;  earth- 
quakes, 353;  education,  348;  fauna,  347, 
351;  flora,  345-347,  349,  351-354;  forests, 
345-347,  351-353;  harbors,  348,  349;  intro- 
duction of  coffee  from,  into  Cuba,  80 ;  la- 
bor, 356  ;  mountains,  345,  346 ;  people,  285, 
338,  340,  354-356,  387,  388,  395 ;  population, 
19,  354;  quarantine  against,  405;  roads, 
273;  superstition,  395;  trade  with  Porto 
Rico,  159, 160 ;  visiting,  406 

Martinpena,  Lake,  148 

Marvin,  A.  R.,  on  the  minerals  of  Santo 
Domingo,  249 

Mascarene  Islands,  the  tortoise  in,  160 

Masio  Bay,  125 

Massachusetts,  the  great  submarine  shelf 
off,  22;  superstition  in,  396,  397 

Matanzas,  city,  37, 42,  45, 48,49,  63,  86,  88, 107, 
108, 117, 120-122. 141 ;  climate,  51,  121 ;  for- 
tifications, 64;  industries,  121;  popula- 
tion, 98, 120 ;  slave  plot,  67 

Matanzas,  province,  41,  42,  44-46,  62 ;  area, 
97 ;  population,  97, 120 ;  reconcentrados  in, 
106 

Mayaguana,  302 

Mayaguez,  city,  156, 157, 161, 172,  178, 179 

Mayaguez,  department,  156,  165, 183 

Mayaguez,  Rio,  148,  179 

Maymon  River,  258 

Maysi,  Cape,  35,  44,  132,  136 

Mediterranean  Sea,  the  lemons  of  the 
coasts,  136;  the  Liverpool  of  the,  137; 
overrun  by  the  Atlanteans,  381 

Memory  Rock,  10 

Merced  Church,  Havana,  112 

Mercury,  in  Porto  Rico,  151 

Mesa  Toar,  43,  47 

Mesozoic  era  and  formations,  40 

Mestizos :  in  Jamaica,  226;  Porto  Rlco,  166 

Methodists,  in  Jamaica,  207 

Mexican  Plateau,  the,  3,  6 

Mexico,  1,  5,  6,  8,  35,  87,  154,  195,  202,  274 ; 
architecture,  110,  111 ;  arid  lands,  33 ;  com- 
munications with  New  York,  405 ;  con- 
quest of,  368 ;  Cubans  in,  102 ;  currency, 
163 ;  Spaniards  in,  289 ;  trade  with  Jamai- 
ca, 217 ;  triumph  over  yellow  fever,  59 

Mexico,  Cave  ofj  196 

Middlesex  County,  Jamaica,  205 

Milk  River,  196 

Milot,  276 

Mineral  and  thermal  springs :  in  Cuba, 
119,  142;  Dominica,  342;  Guadeloupe, 
338 ;  Jamaica,  195,  196,  225 ;  Nevis,  333  ; 
Porto  Rico,  151, 178;  St.  Lucia,  357 

Minerals.  See  the  names  of  the  various 
islands  and  of  specific  kinds 

Minho  River,  192, 196 

Minorca,  emigration  to  Jamaica,  204 

Miragoane,  275,  281  « 

Mirebalais,  282 

Miscegenation:  in  Barbados,  378;  Caba, 
104;  Haiti,  290;  Jamaica,  226 

Missionary  zeal,  misapplied,  288 

Mississippi,  8 

Mississippi  River,  the,  10 

Misterosa  Ridge,  the,  29,  30 


422 


INDEX 


Moa,  Rio,  47 

Molasses.    See  Scgak 

Mole  St.  Nicolas,  90,  259,  274,  276,  277 

Mona  Island,  24, 182, 183 

Mona  Passage,  16,  178, 183 

Moneague,  192, 196,  203,  225 

Mongoos :  in  Jamaica,  199 ;  Martinique, 
347 

Monito,  183 

Monkey  Hill,  331 

Monks,  the,  365 

Monologues,  the  negroes',  286 

Mon  Rouge,  351 

Montagnes  Noires  Cahos,  246 

Mont  Agua,  203.    See  also  MONEAOUB 

Monte  Cristi,  259,  262 

Monte  Cristi  Mountains,  240,  245,  246 

Montego,  203 

Montego  Bay,  194,  195,  216,  217,  223 

Montego  River,  195 

Monte  Tina,  29 

Montpelier,  225 

Montpelier  Sink,  193 

Montpelier  Valley,  191, 193 

"  Montpellier  of  the  West,"  334 

Montserrat,  23,  25,  326,  328,  329,  334-338,  357, 
358 ;  administration,  335 ;  area,  19,  334 ;  cli- 
mate, 334 ;  hurricane,  336 ;  population,  19, 
335 ;  public  works,  336 ;  Aricissitudes  ol  his- 
tory, 334,  335 

Montserrat,  the  shrine  of,  Porto  Rico,  151 

Moorish  architecture.  111 

Morality,  in  Cuba,  101, 102 ;  Haiti,  286-288 

Morant  Bay,  223 

Morant  Keys,  235 

Moravians,  in  Jamaica,  207 

Moreau,  on  Santo  Domingo  scenery,  243 

Morgan,  Sir  Henry  John,  corsair,  204 

Morgan's  Gut  Valley,  191 

Morne  Diabloten,  342 

Morne  d'Or,  242 

Morne  d'Orange,  350 

Morne  du  Cap,  245,  246 

Morne  Garon,  361 

Morne  Parnasse,  351,  352 

Mornes  de  la  Hotte,  244 

Moron,  45,  63 

Moron-Jucara  trocha,  the,  89 

Morro  Castle,  Havana,  64,  108-110 

Morro  Castle,  San  Juan,  Porto  Rico,  173, 
174 

Morro  Castle,  Santiago,  128 

Morvan,  superstition  in,  399 

Mosquito  Gulf,  the,  9 

Mosquito  Reef,  the,  9 

Mouchoir  Bank,  298 

Mount  Busu,  246 

Mount  Carbet,  345 

Mount  Diablo,  191,  192 

Mount  Hillaby,  373 

Mount  Liberty,  331 

Mount  Misery,  331 

Mount  Pelee,  345 

Mount  Plenty  Cave,  197 

Mouth  of  the  Dragon,  366 

Mouth  of  the  Serpent,  366 

Mouth  River  Cave,  197 

Muertos,  cave  of,  151 

Mulattos :  in  Cuba,  104, 105, 112, 284 ;  Guade- 
loupe, 342 ;  Jamaica,  204 ;  Martinique,  354 ; 
Porto  Rico,  284 ;  Santo  Domingo,  32,  237, 
251,  258,  282,  284,  290,  291 

Mules  :  in  Barbados,  376,  379 ;  Cuba,  137 

Mulgrave  River,  193 

Murder,  in  the  West  Indies,  390 

Murga,  88 

Music,  in  Haiti,  286,  287 

Mustique,  363 

Naguabo,  181 


Naguabo,  Rio,  148 

Nalgo  de  Maco,  29 

Napoleon,  Cuba  declares  war  against,  65; 
overthrows  the  Spanish  dynasty,  65 ;  use 
of  West  Indian  negroes  in  his  army,  340 

Nashville,  Tennessee,  superstition  in,  397 

Nassau,  N.  P.,  7,  300-302 

Nassau,  island  of,  25 

Navassa,  24, 26 

Navidad  Bank,  298 

Nectarines,  in  Cuba,  136 

Negroes,  as  sailors,  301, 321 ;  an  Irish  brogue 
among,  335;  labor  of,  71;  love  for  coun- 
tries of  adoption,  295;  nomenclature  in 
Haiti,  287 ;  religious  trances,  396 ;  respect 
tor  the  whites,  402;  revolt  in  Cuba  in 
1844,  66;  under  British  rule,  32;  witch- 
craft among,  392-399;  in  Antigua,  323, 
324;  Bahamas,  301,  302,  304;  Barbados, 
285,  370,  376,  378,  379;  Barbuda,  321,  322; 
Cuba,  97,  99,  103-106,  112,  115,  142,  168,  389; 
Curayao,  371;  Dominica,  3437^  Fortune 
Islands,  301,  302;  Grenada,  364;  Guade- 
loupe, 340,  342 ;  Haiti,  32,  251,  253,  254,  392 ; 
Jamaica,  32,  105,  142,  199,  203-205,  212,  214, 
216,  217.  220,  221,  223-233,  235,  285;  Lesser 
Antilles,  306,  307;  Martinique,  285,  353- 
356;  iMontserrat,  335;  Nevis,  333;  Porto 
Rico,  105,  164-166,  168-170,389;  Saba,  330; 
St.  Eustatius,  330;  St.  Kitts,  331,  332 ;  St. 
Lucia,  359;  St.  Vincent,  370;  Santo  Do- 
mingo, 237,  242,  251,  253-260,  265-267,  282- 
295;  South  America,  170;  Trinidad,  169, 
369,  370 ;  United  States,  105,  390,  391,  393- 
399;  Virgin  Islands,  311, 313, 315-317 ;  West 
Indies,  104,  105,  168-170,  387,  389-399,  401, 
402.  See  also  Blacks;  Colobed;  Mu- 
lattos; Slavery;  Slavb-Tkade 

Nelson,  Horatio,  marriage  in  Nevis,  333 

Nesbitt,  Mrs.  Fanny,  married  to  Horatio 
Nelson,  333 

Nevis,  19,  23-25,  326,  329,  330,  332-334 

Newcastle  Barracks,  188,  197 

Newell,  W.  W.,  on  vaudouxism,  399 

New  Orleans,  climate  of,  152 ;  obiism  in,  395, 
396 ;  rainf ajl,  50 

New  Providence,  298-300,  302 

Newtown,  Matanzas,  121 

New  York,  cable  communications:  with 
Cuba,  91;  Haiti,  276;  communications 
with:  Bahamas,  301,  303;  Central  Amer- 
ica, 405;  Guadeloupe,  337;  Mexico,  405; 
West  Indies,  405-407;  Cubans  in,  102; 
trade  with :  Haiti,  273 ;  Jamaica,  218,  223 ; 
West  Indies,  17 

Neyba  River,  Santo  Domingo,  31 

Niagara  River,  Jamaica,  191, 193, 196 

Nicaragua,  4,  24,  228 

Nievis,  332.    See  also  Nevis 

Nipe,  Cuba,  47,  86,  132 

Norman  Islands,  310 

Norte,  El,  52.    See  also  Northers 

North  America,  the  continent  of,  1, 2,  5, 383, 
385,  386 

Northers,  12,  52,  158, 173.  180,  183 

Norway,  United  States'  trade  with,  93 

Nova  Scotia,  4 

Nova  Zembla,  10 

Nueva  Gerona,  144 

Nuevitas,  63,  80,  86,  89^  127,  132 

Nutmeg,  in  Trinidad,  367 

Oaxaca,  4 

Ober,  F.  A.,  his  "  Camps  in  the  Caribbees," 
cited,  338 

Obiism  :  in  Barbados,  378 ;  Haiti,  287 ;  Ja- 
maica, 229 ;  West  Indies,  392-396 

Ocampo,  123 

Occa,  Teresa  Montes  de,  101 


INDEX 


423 


Ocoa,  Bay  of,  247 

Old  Bahama  Channel,  the,  9,  22 

Old  Jerusalem  Island,  310 

Old  Providence  Islands,  24 

Oligocene  series  and  epoch,  41 

Opal,  in  Santo  Domingo,  249 

Opossum,  in  the  Bahamas,  299 

Oranges  :  in  the  Bahamas,  300;  Cuba,  76,  81, 
136 ;  Florida,  210 ;  Haiti,  272 ;  Isle  of  Pines, 
81;  Jamaica,  198,  210,  231;  Martinique, 
360;  Porto  Rico,  150,  178, 179;  St.  Croix, 
316 ;  Trinidad,  367 

Oreodoxa  regia,  63 

Orinoco  River,  4,  7,  8,  186,  286 

Oruba,  366,  372.    See  also  Aruba 

"  Our  Lady  of  the  Snow,"  333 

Oxford  Basin,  193 

Ozama  River,  248,  260,  261 

Pacific  coast,  the  fruit  industry  of  the, 
136 

Pacific  Ocean,  1,  3,  386 

Padre,  132 

Pajita  Inlares,  cave  of,  151 

Paleozoic  era  and  formations,  40,  43,  310, 
384 

Palisades,  the,  Jamaica,  219,  221 

Palma,  Rio,  47 

Palm  Beach,  Florida,  communications  with 
the  Bahamas,  301 

Palmira,  88 

Palms :  in  Cuba,  53-55, 79, 129, 144 ;  the  Carib- 
bees,  327,  331 ;  Grand  Cayman,  234 ;  Ja- 
maica, 198;  Martinique,  346,  351-353; 
Porto  Rico,  147, 149, 159, 167, 168 ;  Trinidad, 
367 ;  Virgin  Islands,  311,  316 

Panama,  8, 12 ;  trade  with  Jamaica,  217 

Panama,  Isthmus  of,  1,  4,  6,  9,  35,  228,  270, 
381 

Pan  de  Guajaibon,  40 

Pan  de  Matanzas,  42,  44 

Papaimento,  371 

Paradise  Peak,  St.  Martin,  320 

Paria,  Gulf  of,  366,  367 

Paris,  France,  Cubans  in,  101;  education  of 
Haitians  in,  285, 286 ;  the  Grand  Seminary 
of  Haiti,  268 

"  Paris  of  Haiti,"  the,  275 

Parrots  :  iu  Cuba,  56';  Jamaica,  199 

Partido  de  Fuera,  62 

Partidos,  63 

Paseo,  the,  Havana,  111,  115 

Paseo,  the,  Matanzas,  121 

Patti,  Adelina,  her  d^but  in  Santiago,  130 

"  Pays  des  Revenants,  Les,"  345 

Peaches,  iu  Cuba,  136 

Pearl-fisheries,  Panama,  300 

"  Pearl  of  the  Antilles,"  the,  53,  408 

Pearls,  in  the  Bahamas,  300 

Pedernales,  Rio,  47 

Pedro  Bank,  30.  186 

Pedro  Keys,  235 

Pedro  River,  196 

Pelee.  Mount,  345 

Penalver,  Conde,  114 

Penones  Mountains,  246 

Pentacrini,  15 

Pepper,  in  Jamaica,  214 

Peru  Cave,  197 

Peters  Island,  310 

Pitionville,  280,  282 

Petit  Bourg,  353 

Petit  Goave,  274,  275,  281 

Petroleum,  iu  Cuba,  133 

Philadelphia,  Cuban  manganese  in,  83; 
Cuban  fruit  interests,  81 ;  trade  with  Ja- 
maica, 218,  223 

Philadelphia  "Evening  Telegram,"  on  su- 
perstition Ln  the  United  States,  398 


Philip  1,  patron  of  the  Cuban  sugar  indus- 
try, 76 

Philipsburg,  St.  Martin,  320 

Phosphate  :  iu  Grand  Cayman,  234 ;  Haiti, 
272;  Sombrero,  319 

Phosphorescent  animals,  14 

Pichardo,  Esteban,  his  map  of  Cuba,  36 

Pico  del  Potrerillo,  126 

Pico  del  Turquino,39 

Pico  del  Yaqui,  29,  241,  242,  248 

Pijuan,  123 

Pillars  of  Hercules,  381 

Pimento,  in  Jamaica,  198,  208,  213,  214 

Pimento-grass,  213 

Pinar  del  Rio,  city,  88,  98,  107, 118,  119 

Pinar  del  Rio,  province,  40,  44,  46,  47,  49,  53, 
62, 63, 76, 79, 90, 117, 118, 143 ;  area,  97 ;  popu- 
lation, 87,  103,  106 

Pineapples  :  in  Bahamas,  300 ;  Cuba,  53,  76, 
81,  136 ;  Haiti,  272 ;  Jamaica,  210 ;  Porto 
Rico,  160, 179 

Pine  River,  196 

Pines,  Isle  of,  36,  38 

Pine  timber:  in  Bahamas,  299;  Cuba,  41, 
53 ;  Santo  Domingo,  243 

Pinofies,  Lake,  148 

Piracy,  in  the  West  Indies,  64,  305,  330,  400. 
See  also  Bucaneers 

Pitch  Lake,  Trinidad,  381 

Piton  des  Canaris,  357,  358 

Pitons,  the,  358 

Place  Congo,  New  Orleans,  obilsm  in  the, 
395,  396 

Plaine  du  Nord,  La,  276 

Plaisance,  282 

Plaisance,  Cape,  244 

Plantains  :  in  Haiti,  272 ;  Jamaica,  198,  225, 
231 :  Porto  Rico,  160, 167 

Planters,  disappearance  from  the  West  In- 
dies, 388 

Plata,  Rio,  148 

Platanos,  79 

Platinum,  in  Santo  Domingo,  249,  272 

Plato,  on  the  mythical  Atlantis,  381 

"  Playa,"  48 

Playa,  Porto  Rico,  158,  177 

Playa  de  Naguabo,  181 

Plaza  de  Armas,  Santiago,  130 

Plaza  de  Isabella,  Havana,  110 

Pleistocene  series  and  epoch,  41,  43,  384 

Pliocene  series  and  epoch,  41,  43 

Plymouth,  Montserrat,  334 

Point-4-Pitre,  341,  342 

Poisons,  use  in  the  West  Indies,  394,  395, 
399 

Politeness,  in  Haiti,  286,  287 

Polygamy,  in  Haiti,  286 

Polyps,  15 

Ponce,  city,  156-158, 161, 172, 177-179 

Ponce,  department,  156, 166 

Ponce  de  Leon,  154,  174 

Ponupo,  83 

Ponupo  Mining  Company,  the,  83 

Porpoises,  in  Santo  Domingo,  249 

^ort  Antonio,  189,  217,  223,  228 

Port-i-Piment,  274 

Port-au-Prince,  244,  245,248-250,  252,  264,  267, 
269,  273-275,  278-280.  282,  283  ;  climate,  249, 
250 ;  earthquake,  280 ;  fires,  280 

Port-au-Prince  Bay,  249 

Port  de  Paix,  275-277 

Porte  d'Enfer,  342 

Portland  Cave,  197 

Portland  Parish,  230 

Port  Margot,  264 

Port  Maria,  187,  189,  223 

Port  Morant,  223 

Port  of  Spain,  312,  367,  369 

Porto  Rico,  13,  16,  21,  22,  24,  26, 186, 186, 198, 


424 


INDEX 


Porto  Rico — continued 
202, 236, 238, 258, 296, 297 ,  305, 309, 311 ,  313, 315 ; 
agi'iculture,  153,  159-163,  172,  179, 181-183 ; 
architecture,  172, 174-178, 180, 181 ;  area,  18, 
146 ;  autonomy,  156;  burial  of  the  dead, 
177  ;  cable  communications,  90,  91 ;  caves, 
180, 183 ;  ceded  to  the  United  States,  154, 
404 ;  cities,  172-184  ;  civilization,  32 ;  cU- 
mate,  147,  151-153,  156,  178,  179,  181,  182, 
184 ;  commerce,  158-163 ;  communications 
-with:  New  York,  405,  406;  8t.  Thomas, 
313 ;  contrasted  with  Cuba,  145, 146 ;  cur- 
rency, 163;  departments,  156;  discovery, 
154 ;  diseases,  177 ;  education,  157, 164-166, 
168, 170,  226 ;  electric  light  and  power,  175 ; 
{.  fauna,  150 ;  flora,  147-150 ;  fruits,  149, 150 ; 

Jq   ,        future,  184 ;  gas-M^orks,  176, 178 ;  geology, 
/]  >,  '  150,  151 ;  harbors,  148,  158,  172-174,  176,  177, 

179-181,  183  ;  highways,  161 ;  history  and 
administration,  25,  32,  154-157;  hospital- 
ity, 182;  industries,  163,  175,  178-182;  isl- 
ands, 165, 182-184 ;  land  titles,  184 ;  loyalty 
to  Spain,  155 ;  minerals,  151 ;  mortality, 
153;  mountains,  28-30,  147,  150-152;  peo- 
ple, 146,  154,  157,  164-171,  389  ;  population, 
18, 164-170, 172 ;  press,  157  ;  railroads,  161, 
176,  179 ;  relation  to  Spain,  69 ;  religion, 
156,  157;  rivers,  147,  148,  153,  159;  ship- 
ping, 158,  159,  173,  174,  176, 177,  180;  situa- 
tion and  physical  features,  145-153  ;  sla- 
very, 155, 204 ;  social  progress^  283  ;  tariff, 
183;  telegraph  and  teleimone  lines,  162, 
176 ;  timber,  149, 161 ;  trade  with :  Cuba, 
179 ;  Haiti,  274 ;  visiting,  406  ;  water-sup- 
ply, 147,  148,  151-153 

Port  Royal,  Jamaica,  201,  204,  221 

Portuges,  Rio,  148 

Portuguese,  in  Antigua,  325 

Potatoes,  in  Jamaica,  211,  214,  231 

Poultry :  In  Cuba,  81 ;  Grand  Cayman,  234 ; 
Jamaica,  215 ;  Porto  Rico,  161 

Pourtiles,  Count,  deep-sea  explorations  by, 
14 

Powles,  on  the  Bahama  "  conchs,"  301 

Prado,  the,  Havana,  111 

Precious  metals,  in  the  West  Indies,  380. 
See  also  Gold  ;  Silver 

Presbyterians,  in  Jamaica,  207 

Presidio  Provincial,  San  Juan,  175 

Press,  the :  in  Cuba,  71,  72 ;  Porto  Rico,  157 

Preston,  Stephen,  Haitian  minister  at 
Washington,  270 ;  on  Haitian  cannibalism, 
392,  393 

Prieto,  Rio,  151 

Princesa,  San  Juan,  175 

Princestown,  367 

Proverbs :  in  Haiti,  286 ;  Jamaica,  233,  286 

Pteropods,  16 

Puentes  Crandes,  117 

Puerta  de  Espaiia,  174 

Puerta  Plata,  252,  259,  261,  262 

Puerta  Plata  Mountains,  246 

Puerto  de  Tierra,  San  Juan,  175 

Puerto  Principe,  province,  41,  44-47,  62,  63, 
89 ;  area,  97 ;  cattle,  81 ;  population,  97, 103 

Puerto  Principe,  town,  63,  64,  89,  98,  107,  126, 
127 

Puerto  Real  de  Cabo  Rojo,  158 

Pulmonary  diseases :  in  Cuba,  143 ;  Haiti, 
279 

Punta  Arenas,  Vieques,  183 

Punta  battery,  115 

Punta  Blanca,  129 

Punti  fortress,  64 

Pyrenees,  the,  29 

Quakers,  in  Tortola,  315 
Quarantine  laws,  in  the  West  Indies,  60,  403, 
405 


"  Quatties,"  232 

Quebec  Steamship  Company,  West  Indian 

service,  367,  406 
Quinta,  126 
Quintana,  151 
Quitman,  General  John  A.,  expedition  tc 

Cuba,  67 

Rabbit's  foot,  power  as  a  charm,  398 
Race  prejudice,  169 

Race  problems,  in  the  West  Indies,  387-399 
Radiolarian  earth,  374,  377,  384 
Ragged  Island,  302 

Rainfall :  in  Cuba,  61,  90 ;  Haiti,  273 ;   Ja- 
maica, 200;    Porto  Rico,  152;  Santo  Do- 
mingo, 248-250 
Rainsford,  on  the  character  of  Toussaint 

L'Ouverture.  293 
Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  in  Trinidad,  368 
Ramon,  101 

Rape,  in  the  West  Indies,  390 
Rats,  In  Jamaica,  199 
Ravine  du  Sud,  La,  281 
Real  Audiencia,  San  Juan,  175 
Reciprocity,  between  the  United  States  and 

Spanish  America,  405 
Reclus,  felis^e,  estimate  of  Cuba's  area,  36 ; 

on  the  Haitian  people,  285 
Reconcentration,  106 
Recreo,  126 
Redonda,  25 
Reed,  George  V/.,  monument  at  Spanish 

Town,  222 
Reefs,  12,  22,  37,  38,  41,  86,  151,  180,  239,  298 
Regla,  98,  109 
Remedios,  123,  126 

Reptiles,  association  with  evil  spirits,  394, 
396,  397;  in  the  Caribbees,  328;  Jamaica, 
199;    Martinique,  347;  Porto   Rico,   150; 
Santo  Domingo,  250. 
Republica  Dominicana,  254 
Resano,  Don  Pedro,  Porto  Rican  mineralo- 
gist, 151 
"  Revista  de  Cuba,"  cited,  97 
Rice :  in  Jamaica,  214 ;  Porto  Rico,  160, 162 ; 

Trinidad,  369 
Rio.    See  the  specific  name 
Rio  Grande,  Mexico,  195 
Rio  Grande,  Porto  Rico,  148,  151 
Rio  Grande  de  Arecibo,  180 
Rio  Palma,  Marquesa  de,  114 
Rivas,  Don  Emilio  de,  132 
River  Head,  197 
Riviere  Salee,  338 
Road  Town,  Tortola,  315 
Roads.    See  Highways 
Roaring  River,  193 
Rocca,  Pedro  de  la,  128 
Rochambeau,  General,  expelled  from  Haiti, 

294 
Rocky  Mountains,  the,  2-5,  30 
Rodney,  Admiral,  222 ;  statue  in  Jamaica, 
222;  advises  England  to  retain  Dominica, 
344 ;  victory  over  De  Grasse,  360,  404 
Roman  Catholic  Church  :  in  Cuba,  74,  75 ; 
Haiti,  267-269;  Jamaica,  207;  Porto  Rico, 
157 
Romano  Key,  36,  38 
Roncador  Reef,  26,  30 
Rosalind  Bank,  the,  9,  30,  186 
Rosario,  Falls  of,  47 
Roseau,  342,  343 

Roume,onthe  character  of  Toussaint  L'Ou- 
verture, 293 
Round  Rock,  310 
Royal    Dutch   West    India    Mail    Service 

Company,  Haitian  service,  273 
Royal  Harbor,  Antigua,  323 
Royal  Jamaica  Society  of  Agriculture,  214 


INDEX 


425 


314 


Royal  Mail  Steamship  Company,  West  In- 
dian routes,  218,  273,  282,  313,  3U,  375,  376, 
406 

Royal  palm,  the:  in  Cuba,  63-S5,  79,  129; 
Jamaica,  198 

Royal  Plain,  the,  245 

Ruiz,  Dr.  E.,  on  the  forests  of  Martinique, 
346,347 

Rum  :  in  Cuba,  91, 117,  121 ;  Dominica,  342- 
344;  Grenada,  364;  Havana,  117;  Ja- 
maica, 209,  215;  Martinique,  348;  Porto 
Rico,  163, 178, 179, 181 ;  Trinidad,  368 

Rum  Key,  302,  303 

Saba,  19,  23,  25,  326,  329,  330,  372,  388 

Sabao,  259 

Sagua,  86,  88 

Sagua  la  Grande,  63,  88,  123 

Sagua  la  Grande,  Rio,  88 

Sagua  River,  Cuba,  31,  47 

St.  Ann  Parish,  192,  193,  196,  197,  212 

St.  Ann's  Bay,  223 

St.  Augustine,  Florida,  110 

St.  Augustine  Church,  San  Juan,  175 

St.  Bartholomew,  19,  23,  25,  318,  319 

St.  Catherine's  Peak,  189 

St.  Christopher,  23-26,  319,  326,  329-334 

St.  Croix,  18,  315-317 

Ste.  Alouise,  357 

St.  Elizabeth,  191,  193,  196,  197,  200 

Saintes,  the,  15,  25 

St.  Eustatius,  19,  23,  25,  326,  329,  330,  372,  388 

St.  George,  Grenada,  364 

Saint  Jago.    See  Santiago  de  Cuba 

St.  James  Parish,  191,  196 

St.  John,  18,  21,  25,  26,  309,  311,  313, 

St.  John,  Antigua,  25,  323 

St.  John,  Sir  Spenser,  on  Haiti  and  the 
Haitians,  275,  283-285,  293,  392 

St.  Kitts.    See  St.  Christopher 

St.  Lucia,  23,  25,  34,  221,  306,  326,  328,  329, 
340,  344,  357-360,  364;  administration,  25, 
358 ;  agriculture,  359 ;  area,  19 ;  educatiou, 
358;  emigration,  344,  359;  fortifications, 
359;  French  outbreak  In,  360;  French 
ownership,  358,  360;  harbors,  358,  359; 
military  station,  376 ;  population,  19 

St.  Louis  du  Nord,  276 

St.  Marc,  278 

St.  Martin,  19,  23,  25,  319,  320,  341,  372,  380,;402 

St.  Nicolas  Peninsula,  239,  241,  242,  247,  277 

St.  Pierre,  Martinique,  349-351,  353,  354 

St.  Thomas,  12,  16,  21,  25,  26,  151,  183,  186, 
309-315,  337,  359,  401;  area,  18,  310;  cable 
communications,  313;  coast-Hue  and 
harbors,  312-315 ;  commerce  and  commu- 
nications, 313,  314,  406 ;  decline,  313,  314 ; 
eniaucipation,  314;  hurricanes,  312,  313; 
languages,  313 ;  mountains,  28,  29 ;  offered 
to  the  United  States,  313  ;  population,  18 ; 
shipping,  313 ;  slavery.  314 ;  trade  with  : 
Barbados,  375 ;  Porto  Rico,  159, 160;  visit- 
ing, 406 

St.  Thomas,  Bay  of,  252 

St.  Thomas,  city,  312-314 

St.-Thomas-in-the-Vale,  190-193, 197 

St.  Vincent,  15, 22,  23,  25,  26, 326,  357,  360-364 ; 
area,  lU,  361;  emigration,  362,  370;  laud- 
tenure,  402 ;  population,  19,  361 

Salem,  Massachusetts,  superstition  in,  396 

Salt,  as  a  vegetable  product,  55 ;  in  An- 
Kullla,  319,  380;  Bahamas,  300,  303,  304; 
Cuba,  66,  82,  86,  380 ;  Curacao,  371 ;  Haiti, 
272;  St.  Martin,  320, 380;  Santo  Domingo, 
262 ;  Turks  Island,  380 

Salt  Island,  310 

Salt  Key,  15,  303 

Sam,  General  Tiresias  Simon,  Preeldent  Of 
Haiti,  266 


Samana,  259,  262,  298 

Sam  ana  Bay,  238,  239,  241,  246,  252,  267-259, 
262 

Samana  peninsula,  238,  239,  241,  246 

Sambo  Hills,  246 

San  Antonio,  bridge  of,  173 

San  Antonio,  Cape,  35 

San  Antonio,  Rio,  47,  48 

San  Antonio  de  los  Bafios,  63,  118, 119 

San  Catalina  fortress,  Porto  Rico,  174 

Sanchez,  259 

San  Cristobal,  62,  63, 118, 119 

San  Cristobal  fort,  Porto  Rico,  174 

Sancti  Spiritus,  89 

Sandalwood :  in  Barbuda,  322 ;  Haiti,  271 ; 
Porto  Rico,  149 

San  Diego,  springs  of,  49 

San  Domingo,  city,  241,  247,  248,  252,  259-262, 
380-384 

San  Domingo,  coast-line  and  harbors,  259- 
262;  commerce,  255-257 ;  communications 
with  St.  Thomas,  313;  Cuban  immigra- 
tion, 255;  diplomatic  relations  with 
Haiti,  270;  earthquakes,  261;  education, 
256;  finances,  255;  Haitian  negroes  sold 
to,  292;  hostility  to  Haiti,  251,  252,  254; 
language,  258 ;  minerals,  257, 258 ;  people, 
358-260,  387,  389 ;  political  and  social  con- 
ditions, 251  et  seq.;  population,  258 ;  post- 
oflice,  259 ;  press,  256 ;  question  of  annex- 
ation to  the  United  States,  264,  255,  404 ; 
railways,  255,  259 ;  religion,  256;  there- 
public,  236,  243,  247,  251-262,  298;  roads, 
259 ;  shipping,  259 ;  tele^aphs,  259 ;  union 
with  Haiti,  295;  vicissitudes  in  her  his- 
tory, 251-255;  visiting,  406.  See  also 
Santo  Domingo 

San  Domingoans,  236 

San  Felipe,  88 

San  Fernando,  367,  368 

San  Fernando,  Cuba,  climate,  62 

San  Francisco  Church,  San  Juan,  175 

San  German,  147,  181 

San  Geronimo,  San  Juan,  175 

Sanitation  :  in  Cuba,  113, 114 ;  Jamaica,  105 ; 
West  Indies,  407 

San  Jos^  Church,  San  Juan,  176 

San  Jose  de  los  Mates,  243 

San  Juan,  Porto  Rico.  See  SAN  JUAN  BAU- 
tista  de  Puerto  Rico 

San  Juan,  San  Domingo,  founded,  262 

San  Juan  Bautista  de  Puerto  Rico,  160-152, 
156-158,  161,  172-179,  184,  260 

San  Juan  de  los  Remedies,  63 

San  Juan  River,  Cuba,  120, 122 

San  Juan  River,  Santo  Domingo,  241,  248 

San  Luis,  89 

San  Miguel  sulphur  baths,  Cuba,  49 

San  Nicolas,  Gulf  of,  252 

San  Salvador,  6 

Sans  Souci,  Haiti,  276 

Santa  Alalia,  cascade  of,  151 

Santa  Ana  Church,  San  Juan,  176 

Santa  Clara,  city,  122,  126,  139 

Santa  Clara,  Cuba,  province,  41,  42,  44-46, 
62, 123 ;  area,  97 ;  cattle,  81 ;  population,  97, 
103;  reconcentrados  in,  106 

Santa  Cruz,  19,  25.  151.    See  also  ST.  Cboxx 

Santa  Elena,  Sanjuan,  175 

Santa  F6,  Isle  of  Pines,  144 

Santa  P^,  Rio,  144 

Santa  Maria  del  Rosario,  63 

Santiago,  Santo  Domingo,  252,  269 

Santiago,  valley  of,  246 

Santiago  Bay,  83 

Santiago  de  Cuba,  29,  40,  42,  44,  63,  79,  81,  82, 
84-87,  89,  90,  107,  117,  124,  127-131,  136,  200, 
234 ;  archbishopric,  74 ;  battle  of,  44;  cable 
communications,    90;   climate,    61,    131; 


426 


INDEX 


Santiago  de    Cuba — continued 
foundation,  64 ;  population,  98,  99,  131 ; 
trade  witli  Haiti,  274;  visiting,  406 

Santiago  de  Cuba,  province  of,  39,  42-47,  62, 
63,  81,  89,  97,  103 

Santiago  de  las  Vegas,  Cuba,  63 

Santiago  de  la  Vega,  Jamaica,  222 

Santiago  de  los  Caballeros,  261,  262 

Santo  Domingo,  9,  16,  21,  22,  24,  25,  29,  123, 
145,  183,  185,  190,  202,  203,  236-250,  297,  298 ; 
aborigines,  252 ;  administration,  24,  25 ; 
agriculture,  252,  253,  256, 257 ;  area,  18, 238 ; 
bones  of  Columbus,  113 ;  climate,  249, 250 ; 
coasWine  and  harbors,  238,  239,  241,  246, 
248,  259-262;  communications  witb  New 
York,  405,  406 ;  currency,  256 ;  discovery, 
237,  246,  252;  earthquakes,  261,  275,  276; 
emancipation,  237;  emigration  to  Porto 
Eico,  155 ;  fauna,  242,  249,  250 ;  flora,  243, 
246,  247  ;  fruits,  257,  263,  272  ;  geology,  249, 
384 ;  lakes,  241,  246,  246,  248,  249 ;  lost  to 
Spain,  65 ;  minerals,  245,  249,  257,  258,  271, 
272 ;  mountains,  29,  30,  239-250 ;  people,  251 
et  seq.,  389;  population,  18;  post-office, 
259 ;  quarantine  against,  405;  railways,  255, 
259 ;  repulse  of  the  English  from,  203 ;  riv- 
ers, 240,  242,  243,  245,  246,  248,  264,  276; 
roads,  259 ;  slavery,  237 ;  Spanish  occupa- 
tion, 248,  249,  290;  stormy  history,  237, 
248,  252-255,  258;  superstition,  245;  tele- 
graphs, 259 ;  trade  with  Porto  Rico,  159. 
See  also  Haiti  ;  San  Domingo 

Santo  Domingo,  Cuba,  88 

Santo  Domingo  Improvement  Company, 
255,  256 

Santo  Espiritu,  Cuba,  63,  64,  98, 107 

Santo  Espiritu,  Island  42, 

San  Turce,  174 

Saona,  239 

Sap-saps,  331 

Satinwood,  in  Santo  Domingo,  257 

Savana  de  la  Puerta,  244 

Savana-la-Mar,  191,  193, 195,  223 

Scaife,  W.  B.,  on  the  future  of  Cuba,  138, 139 

Scarborough,  Tobago,  371 

Schomburgk,  Sir  Robert  H.,  on  the  min- 
erals of  Santo  Domingo,  245 

Scorpion,  the,  56 

Scotch  dialect,  among  Bahama  negroes,  301 

Scotch  Kirk,  in  Jamaica,  207 

Scotch  negroes,  390 

Scotland,  emigration  to  Jamaica,  203,  204 

Scotland,  Barbados,  374 

Scotland  district,  Barbados,  374,  375,  377 

Scrub  Island,  309 

Scrutton's  Steamship  Company,  301 

Sea-birds,  on  Morant  Keys,  235 

Sea-gardens,  298 

Seals,  in  Jamaica,  199 

Seborucco,  the,  31,  36,  151,  194 

Selenodon,  the,  in  Santo  Domingo,  250 

Selma  "Times,"  on  superstition  in  Ala- 
bama, 398 

Serers,  285 

Serpent-worship,  393,  394. 396 

Serra  de  Casa,  Kio  de,  144 

Serrano,  General,  124 

Seville  oranges,  in  Jamaica,  210  • 

Seybo,  262 

Seylo,  Plain  of,  247 

Shaddocks :  in  Haiti,  272 ;  Jamaica,  210 

Sharks,  in  Santo  Domingo,  249 

Sheep :  in  Anegada,  315 ;  Cuba,  81 ;  Tobago, 
371 

Shell-fish,  in  the  Bahamas,  299 

Shells,  15,  22 

Shettlewood,  225 

Ship-building,  in  Cuba,  64 

Sicily,  the  lemons  of,  136 


Sierra  Cibao,  29,  241,  242,  246,  247 

Sierra  Cubitas,  42 

Sierra  de  Cayey,  147 

Sierra  del  Cobre,  40 

Sierra  de  la  Monte  Cristi,  246 

Sierra  del  Marta,  3 

Sierra  de  los  Organos,  40,  41,  79 

Sierra  Luquillo,  147,  151 

Sierra  Maestra,  4,  29,  30,  37,  39-44,  60,  82,  83, 
127, 129,  131,  185,  190,  234,  240 

Sierra  Matahambre,  44 

Sierra  Zatibonico,  42 

Sigsbee,  Captain  C.  O.,  deep-sea  explora- 
tions by,  14 

Sigsbee  Deep,  the,  13 

Sigua  mines,  131 

Sillon  de  la  Viuda,  244 

Silver :  in  Cuba,  82,  380 ;  Santo  Domingo, 
249,  253,  258,  272,  380 

Silver  Bank,  298 

Silver  Hill,  189 

Sir  John's  Peak,  189 

Sisal  hemp,  in  Bahamas,  300 

Sisters  of  Charity,  in  Haiti,  269 

Slavery :  in  Bahamas,  300 ;  Cuba,  64,  204, 
284;  Guadeloupe,  340;  Haiti,  284,  285, 
287,  289-293 ;  Jamaica,  204,  205,  209,  230 ; 
Lesser  Antilles,  305-307 ;  Porto  Rico,  156, 
169,  170,  204 ;  St.  Thomas,  314,  316 ;  Santo 
Domingo,  237,  253.;  Tortola,  315 ;  Trinidad, 
368 ;  United  States,  284 ;  West  Indies,  400 ; 
abolished :  by  Great  Britain,  204 ;  in  Bra- 
zil, 289;  Haiti,  288,  289,  291,  294;  United 
States,  288,  291 

Slave-trade,  67,  204,  284 

Smallpox:  in  Cuba,  113,  140;  Haiti,  279; 
Santiago  citjr,  131 

Snake  dance,  m  Haiti,  392,  393 

Snakes,  55,  66;  in  Santo  Domingo,  250.  See 
also  Reptiles 

Snake-worship,  393,  394,  396 

Socapa,  La,  128 

"Soldiers  of  Fortune,"  82 

Soledad  estate,  124 

Solenodon,  the,  65 

Sombrero,  19,  23,  150,  318,  319,  323 

Sorcery :  in  France,  399 ;  United  States,  398 

Soulouque,  Emperor  of  Haiti,  273 

South  America,  23,  35,  165,  186,  305,  365,  381, 
383 ;  cable  communications  with  Cuba, 
91 ;  the  continent,  1,  2,  4-6 ;  earthquakes, 
361;  islands  formed  from  the  continent,  23; 
Spain  loses  her  colonies  in,  65,  66;  Span- 
iards in,  289 ;  trade  with  Porto  Rico,  169 

South  American  Antilles,  308,  365-372 

Southward  air-currents,  12 

Spain ,  architecture,  110,  111 ;  colonial  ad- 
ministration, 32, 291 ;  colonies,  69 ;  coloni- 
zation of  Cuba,  64  ;  constitution  of  1836, 
66 ;  Cuba's  loyalty  to,  66,  66,  92 ;  Cuba's 
relation  to,  69,  70;  currency,  163;  diplo- 
matic relations  with  Haiti,  270;  end  of 
her  regime  in  Cuba,  134  et  seq.;  loses  and 
regains  Cuba,  64 ;  loss  of  American  colo- 
nies, 65,  66 ;  losses  of  men  in  Cuba,  67 ; 
loyalty  of  Porto  Rico  to,  165 ;  oppression 
and  spoliation  of  Cuba,  65-75,  92,  138; 
overthrow  of  the  Bourbons,  65;  posses- 
sion: of  Guadeloupe,  340;  Jamaica,  203, 
213;  Porto  Rico,  164;  Santo  Domingo, 
237,  253,  254,  258,  260-262,  289  ;  provinces 
represented  in  Havana,  111 ;  receipts  of 
gold  from  Santo  Domingo,  258 ;  sends  ex- 
pedition to  Haiti,  292 ;  size  compared 
with  Cuba,  36 ;  source  of  her  weakness  in 
Cuba,  90;  struggles  for  Trinidad,  368; 
struggles  for  West  Indie8,400 ;  trade  with : 
Cuba,  92,  93,  143 ;  Porto  Rico,  159,  162 ; 
West  Indian  possessions,  24, 25, 218,  311 


INDEX 


427 


Spaniards,  in  Cuba,  142 

Spanish  America,  404;  reciprocity  witb, 
405 

Spanish-American  Company,  the,  82 

Spanish-American  mines,  131 

Spanish  Antilles,  306 

Spanish  Main,  the,  155 

Spanish  race,  in  the  West  Indies,  387,  388, 
390 

Spanish  Royal  Mail  Steamship  Company, 
Haitian  service,  274 

Spanish  Town,  222,  223,  225 

Spanish  Town  Island,  315.  See  alflO  VIRGIN 
GORUA 

Spanish  ^Vest  Indies,  visiting  the,  406,  407 

Sparro\v  Point  Company,  82 

Spices:  in  Jauiaica,  213,  214;  Trinidad, 
067 

Spiders,  in  Cuba,  56 

Sponges^  in  the  Bahamas,  300,  303 

Spruce,  m  Santo  Domingo,  243 

Standard  Oil  Company,  works  at  San  Juan, 
Porto  Rico,  175 

Starvation,  in  Cuba,  106 

Steelton  Company,  the,  82 

Sternberg,  Surgeon-General,  on  yellow 
lever  in  Havana,  58,  59 

Stoddard,  Charles  A.,  his  "  Cruising  in  the 
Caribbees,"  cited,  330 

Stomach  complaints,  in  Cuba,  57 

Strait  of  Florida,  the,  9, 10,  15, 17,  35 

Strait  of  Yucatan,  the,  10,  15 

Straits  of  Sunda,  explosion  in,  361 

Stuart,  William  H.,  131 

Suffrage,  in  Porto  Eico,  155 

Sugar,  bounties,  78 ;  the  impoverished  in- 
dustry, 77,  78  ;  in  Antigua,  76, 323-325,  331 ; 
Antilles,  32 ;  Barbados,  374-376, 379 ;  Cuba, 
34,  44-46,  49,  62-64,  76-78,  87-91,  94,  95, 103, 
105,  106,  109,  120-127,  131,  132,  136-139,  256, 
376, 400 ;  Dominica,  342-344, 401 ;  Germany, 
401 ;  Grenada,  364 ;  Guadeloupe,  339,  340 ; 
Hawaii,  404 ;  Jamaica,  198-200, 208-210, 212- 
215, 224,  228 ;  Java,  77 ;  Lesser  Antilles,  306, 
307,401;  Louisiana,  404;  Martinique,  348, 
349 ;  Mexico,  77 ;  Montserrat,  335 ;  Porto 
Kico,  159-161,163,  178-183;  St.  Croix,  316  ; 
St.  Kitts,  331;  St.  Lucia,  359;  St,  Martin, 
320;  St.  Thomas,  314, 401 ;  St.  Vincent,  362 ; 
Santo  Domingo,  253,  255-257,  262,  272,  289  ; 
Tobago,  371 ;  Trinidad,  368 ;  West  Indies, 
20,   76-78,  400-403,  406.    See   also   Beet- 

SUGAE 

Sugar  Commission,  the  British,  324,  402 

Sugar-Loaf  Peak,  189 

Sulphur:  in  the  Caribbees,  380 ;  Dominica, 
342 ;  Haiti,  272 ;  Saba,  329 ;  St.  Lucia,  357 

Sulphur  baths,  iu  Nevis,  333 

Superstition:  in  Alabama,  398;  Antigua,  395; 
Barbados,  395 ;  Georgia,  397  ;  Jamaica, 
229,  395,  396 ;  Martinique,  395 ;  Massachu- 
setts, 396,  397  ;  Santo  Domingo,  245 ;  Ten- 
nessee, 397 ;  among  the  Vaudois,  398,  399 ; 
iu  the  West  IndioM,  392-399 

Surrey  County,  Jamaica,  205 

Swan  Island,  24 

Sweden,  possession  of  St.  Bartholomew, 
320 ;  United  States'  trade  with,  93 

Sweet  potato,  in  Cuba,  53.    See  also  Yams 

Taboo,  the,  169 
Ta9on,Captain-General,hl8  administration, 

66,  71 
Tamarinds:  in  St.  Croix,  316;  St.  KlttS,  331 
Tampa,  Florida,  406 
Tangle  River,  196 
Tariff  laws,  401,  403,  405 
Taverner,  on  superstition  in  Boston,  396, 

397 


Taxation,  in  Cuba,  67,  71-73, 141 

Teatro  Ta?on,  the.  111,  112 

Tehuantepec,  Isthmus  of,  6 

Telegraph  lines,  in  Cuba,  90,  91 

Tenencias  de  gobierno,  63 

Tennessee,  superstition  in,  397 

Terre  Basses,  St.  Martin,  320 

Terre  Neuve,  277 

Terry,  Don  Tomas,  132 

Tertiary  period  and  formations,  5,  28,  40, 41, 
43,  150,  249,  310,  319,  328,  382-386 

Tetas  de  Managua,  42 

Tetas  de  Montero,  147 

Texas,  8,  11,  195 

Thackeray,  "W.  M.,  on  the  "nigger,"  227 

Tiburon,  Cape  and  Peninsula,  186,  239,  248, 
249,  267,  271,  274,  281 

Tierra  Adentro,  62,  63 

Tierra  Caliente,  Mexico,  the  flora  of,  53 

Timber :  in  Bahamas,  299;  Cuba,  41,  53,  54, 
81,  91,  94;  Grand  Cayman,  234;  Jamaica, 
213 ;  Porto  Rico,  161 ;  Santo  Domingo,  243, 
247,  257 ;  Tobago,  371 

Tin :  in  Haiti,  272 ;  Santo  Domingo,  249 

Tina,  Mount,  241,  246 

Toar,  Mesa,  43,  47 

Tobacco  and  cigars :  in  Anguilla,  319 ;  Cuba, 
34,  64,  76,  78-80,  87,  88,  90,  91,  93-95,  112,  117, 
119,  127,  131,  136 ;  Florida,  102 ;  Jamaica, 
102,  208,  211, 215 ;  Martinique,  348 ;  Mexico, 
102;  Porto  Rico,  159-163,  178,  179;  Santo 
Domingo,  255,  257,  261,  262,  269-272;  To- 
bago, 371 

Tobago,  21,  23,  26,  365,  366,  370,  371 ;  agricul- 
ture, 371 ;  area,  19,  370 ;  climate,  371 ;  poi>- 
ulation,  19 

Tomatoes,  in  Jamaica,  211 

Tom-tom,  the,  in  Haiti,  286 

Tortoise:  in  Galapagos,  150;  Mascarene 
Islands,  150;  Porto  Rico,rl50, 181 

Tortola  Island,  21,  309,  311,  314;  area,  19; 
emancipation,  315;  population,  19;  sla- 
very, 315 

Tortuga  Island,  253,  365 

Tortuguero,  Lake,  148 

Torture,  in  Cuba,  67,  71 

Trade-winds,  the,  11-13,  50,  52,  127, 140, 177, 
276,  312,  328,  374  ~ 

Treaty  of  Paris  (1763),  64 

Tree-ferns  :  in  Cuba,  40 ;  Jamaica,  189 ;  Mar- 
tinique, 352,  354 ;  Porto  Rico,  149 

Trelawney  Parish,  193, 196,  197 

Triassic  period  and  formations,  40 

Trinidad,  7,  8,  21-23,  26,  312,  318,  359,  365-371, 
377, 381 ;  administration,  368-370, 375 ;  agri- 
culture, 368-370;  area,  19,  366;  climate, 
367 ;  commerce,  367-369 ;  communications 
with  New  York,  406 ;  discovery,  367 ;  edu- 
cation, 368;  flora,  366,  367 ;  Fronde  on  the 
harbor  of,  403 ;  people,  367, 369,  370 ;  popu- 
lation, 19,  369;  railways,  368;  trade  with 
Barbados,  375 

Trinidad  de  Cuba,  37,  41,  42,  44,  47,  63,  79,  86, 
89,  107,  123-127 ;  climate,  51 ;  foundation 
of,  64 ;  population,  98 

Trois  Rivieres,  Les,  276 

Trollope,  Anthony,  on  Jamaica,  220, 226, 227, 
230;  on  St.  Thomas,  313;  on  the  West  In- 
dies, 408 

Tropical  acclimation,  388-390 

Tropical  countries,  relation  between  politi- 
cal disorganization  and  their  rugosity, 
240 ;  rainfall  of,  61 ;  traveling  in,  60, 61 

Turgeau,  280 

Turks  Island,  22,  24,  25,  233,  298,  300,  302-304, 
380 

Turtles :  in  Bahamas,  299,  300;  Grand  Cay- 
man. 236;  Haiti,  281;  on  Moraut  Keys, 
236 ;  in  Santo  Domingo,  260 


428 


INDEX 


Tussac,  researches  into  Haitian  flora,  2t>4 
Twelve-League  Keys,  38 
*•  Two  Years  in  the  French  West  Indies  " 
(Heam),  cited,  338 

Ubajay,  Cuba,  climate,  52 

Ucares,  181 

"Uncle  Remus"  stories,  233 

Union  pueblo,  Matanzas,  122 

United  Kingdom.  See  England;  Great 
Britain 

United  States,  274 ;  advantages  of  the  lib- 
eration of  Cuba,  143 ;  arid  lands,  33 ;  caste, 
390,  402 ;  color  line,  286  ;  conjuring,  394- 
399 ;  consumption  of :  Cuban  asphaltum, 
83,  84;  Cuban  bananas,  81;  Cuban  copper, 
84 ;  Cuban  tobacco,  80 ;  Cuban  iron-trade 
"With,  83 ;  Cuban  policy,  134  et  seq.;  cur- 
rency, 163;  diplomatic  relations  with 
Haiti,  270 ;  education  of  Cubans  in,  101, 
102 ;  emancipation,  103,  288,  291 ;  emigra- 
tion to  Haiti,  295 ;  expeditions  to  Cuba, 
66, 67, 81 ;  first  crossing  of  the,  104 ;  friend- 
ship of  Great  Britain  for,  404 ;  geological 
formation,  383 ;  Haitians  in  the  Revolu- 
tion, 290,  291;  "hamts,"  395;  historical 
connection  with  the  Bahamas,  300,  302 ; 
hoodoo,  394-399 ;  immigration,  142 ;  inter- 
vention in  Cuba,  95, 96,  404, 408 ;  lynching, 
390;  manufactures,  405;  a  new  winter 
resort  for,  142, 143 ;  possession  of  Porto 
Rico,  154;  protection,  215,  300;  push, 
402 ;  question  of  annexation  of  San  Do- 
mingo to,  254,  255 ;  reciprocity,  405 ;  rec- 
ognizes the  independence  of  Haiti,  267 ; 
a  refuge  for  Cubans,  74 ;  relation  to  the 
West  Indies,  402-408 ;  the  Revolution,  360 ; 
Rocky  Mountain  region,  3 ;  St.  Thomas 
and  St.  John  ofi'ered  to,  313 ;  slavery,  284 ; 
tonnage  in  the  Cuban  trade,  87;  trad^ 
with:  Bahamas,  300,  301,  303;  Baracoa, 
133 ;  Barbados,  376,  377 ;  Cuba,  92-95, 143, 
256;  Grand  Cayman,  234;  Guadeloupe, 
341;  Haiti,  269,  270;  Jamaica,  209,  210, 
215-218 ;  Martinique,  348 ;  Matan^zas,  121 ; 
Porto  Rico,  162,  179,  181,  184;  San  Do- 
mingo, 256;    Santiago,    131;    Santo   Do- 

.  mingo,  256 ;  tribute  to  Great  Britain,  222; 
Trinidad,  367-369 ;  West  Indian  desire 
for  annexation  to,  313 ;  witchcraft,  393-399 

United  States  of  Colombia.    See  Colombia 

United  System  of  Havana,  88 

University  of  Havana,  112, 113 

Up-town  Camp,  Kingston,  221 

Usine  St.  Madeleine,  Trinidad,  368 

Utuado,  151,  152 

Vaca,  Cabeza  de,  104 

Valamaseda,  Captain-General,  his  rule  in 
Cuba,  68,  69 

Valliere,  la,  242.    See  also  Maboons 

Valparaiso,  Haiti,  276 

Vaud,  superstition  in,  399 

Vaudois,  superstition  among  the,  398,  399 

Vaudoux,  392-394,  397-399.  See  also  HOO- 
dooism;  Voodoo 

Vaudouxism,  in  Haiti,  393,  396,  398,  399 

Vega  Real,  245,  246,  257, 259,  262 

Vegas,  79,  80 

Velasquez,  Diego,  124, 128;  colonizes  Cuba, 
63,  64;  first  governor  of  Cuba,  108;  in 
Trinidad,  368 

Venezuela,  3,  4,  6,  8,  366,  371,  372 ;  immigra- 
tion from  Dominica,  344 ;  trade  with  Trin- 
idad, 367 

VeraCruz,  expulsion  of  yellow  fever  from, 
59 

Vere  Parish,  195-197 

Verrettes,  278 


Versailles,  Matanzas,  121 

"  Viens-viens,"  245 

Vieques  Island,  24,  165,  182-184 

Vigia,  La,  125 

Villa  Clara,  Cuba,  46,  63,  84,  88, 126 

Virazon,  la,  52 

Virgin  Gorda,  19,  21,  309,  311,  315 

Virginia,  the  caves  of,  49;  relations  with 
Barbados,  377 

Virgin  Islands,  15,  16,  21,  25,  151,  183,  296, 
308-315,  384;  area,  18,  19,  310;  communi- 
cations with  New  York,  405,  406 ;  decay, 
315;  discovery,  309;  flora,  311,  314,  316; 
mountains,  28 ;  population,  18, 19 

"Vixen,"  U.  8.  brig  of  war,  captured  by 
H.  B.  M.  frigate  "  Southampton,"  222 

Volcanic  Caribbees,  the,  326-336 

Volcanoes  and  volcanic  formations,  2-6,  20, 
23, 24, 305 ;  in  Antigua,  323 ;  the  Caribbees, 
318,  328-331,  334,  338,  340,  342,  384,  385 ;  the 
Great  Antilles,  384,  385;  Grenada,  364; 
Guadeloupe,  338;  St.  Lucia,  357,  358;  St. 
Vincent,  361 ;  West  Indies,  400 

Vomito,  58.    See  also  Yellow  Fever 

Voodooism,  392-394,  397-399;  in  Haiti,  267, 
283,  287,  290;  Jamaica,  229;  Louisiana, 
393—396 

Vuelta  Abajo,  41,  44,  62,  63,  79,  88,  118,  119, 
257 

Vuelta  Arriba,  the,  44,  62,  63,  88, 122,  123 

Wag  W^ater  River,  189,  203,  224 

^Vakes,  in  Haiti,  286 

Waldenses,  vaudouxism  among  the,  399 

^Vashington,  D.  C,  climate,  51,152;  vau- 
douxism in,  397 

Washington,  George,  in  Barbados,  377 

■Washington,  Lawrence,  in  Barbados,  377 

Water,  drinking,  60 

W^atlings  Island,  298,302,  303 

Wax.    See  Beeswax 

W^erwolf,  the,  398 

W^est  End,  St.  Croix,  316 

^Vestern  Department  of  Cuba,  63 

Western  hemisphere,  di\ision  of  the,  1 

■West  India  Improvement  Company,  217 

West  Indian  Regiment,  the,  221 

■West  Indies,  the,  7 ;  administration,  391 
402-405,  408;  agriculture,  20,  405:  area,  8 
British  navy  in,  221,  323;  buildings,  407 
caste,  390,  391 ;  classiflcation,  18-26 ;  cli- 
mate, 12,  13,  20 ;  communications :  with 
Cuba,  87 ;  United  States,  405-407 ;  Cubans 
in,  102 ;  culture,  185 ;  diverse  characteris- 
tics of  the  islands,  20  et  seq.;  diversity  of 
ownership,  402, 403 ;  earthquakes,  361, 400 ; 
east-and-west  trends,  8;  education,  392, 
emancipation,  103,400;  emigration  to  Ja^ 
maica,  203;  England's  struggle  with 
France  in,  360;  expulsion  of  yellow  fever 
from,  59, 60 ;  flora,  407;;f uture,  400-408 ;  geo- 
graphical relations,  1-6;  hydrogi-aphy,309; 
immorality,  103  ;  influence  of  the  French 
Revolution,  289,  290;  inhabited  islands, 
18  et  seq.;  land-tenure,  401,  402 ;  lime- 
stones, 15, 16, 23,  28, 31, 40, 41,  43, 44, 47-49, 82, 
85,  150,  187-193,  195-197,  242,  245,  249,  310, 319- 
321;  mineral  resources,  aslSP !  people,  387- 
399 ;  political  conditions,  38? ;  quarantine 
laws,  405 ;  question  of  annexation  to  the 
United  States,  216;  race  problems,  387- 
399;  rains.  147;  relation  to  the  United 
States,  402-408 ;  sanitation,  388,  389,  407 ; 
slavery,  400 ;  slave-trade,  204 ;  speculation 
concerning  their  origin,  381-386 ;  struggles 
for  their  possession,  400,  404, 408 ;  super- 
stition, 392-399;  tours  through,  405-407; 
trade  with  New  York,  17 ;  vegetation,  20 ; 
volcanoes,  400 


INDEX 


429 


"  VTest  Indies  and  the'Spanish  Main,  The  " 

(Trollope),  cited,  230 
Westmoreland,  191,  193,  195 
Weyler,    Captain-General,  his   barbarous 

administration,  69;  his  reconcentrami- 

ento,  106 
Weyman,  Surgeon-General,  on  yellow  fever 

in  Havana,  59 
Whidden,  on  cannibalism  in  Haiti,  393 
White,  Andrew  D.,  on  the  San  Domlngo- 

aus,  259 
W^idow's  Saddle,  the,  243 
Wild  dogs,  in  Barbuda,  321 
Wild  hogs,  in  Santo  Domingo,  242,  250 
W^illemstad,  371,  372 
Will-o'-the-wisp,  the,  395 
"Windward,"  the  word,  11 
Windward  bridge,  the,  381,  382 
Windward  Channel,  the,  10 
Windward  Islands,  6,  8,  9,  11,  12,  15,  16,  21, 

28,  297,  306,  358,  364 ;  administration,  375 ; 

cable  communications,  91 
Windward  Passage,  the,  16,  28,  31,  35,  38, 

130,  241,  247,  248,  250,  277,  298,  303 
Witchcraft :  in    Europe,  393-395,    398,  399  ; 

Haiti,  287 ;  United  States,  393-399 ;  West 

Indies,  393-399 
Wolofs,  285 
Women :  in  Haiti,  267, 269, 284-287 ;  Jamaica, 

224,  226,  228-232,  234 ;  Martinique,  354-366 ; 

Porto  Rico,  166, 167 ;  Trinidad,  3€7 
Wool,  in  Cuba,  81 


Wreckers:  in  the  Bahamas,  300;  Barbuda, 
321 

"  Xaymaca,"  203 

Yagua,  the,  55 

Yaguajay,  89 

Yagua  Ramas,  88 

Yamanigacy,  Rio,  47 

Yams,  in  Jamaica,  214.    See  also  Sweet 

Potato 
Yankee  River,  196 
Yaqui,  Pico  del,  29 

Yaqui  del  Norte,  Rio,  31,  241,  246,  248,  261 
Yara,  127 

Yauchia,  in  Porto  Rico,  160 
Yauco,  161 
Yellow  fever :  in  Cuba,  58-60,  101,  113,  118, 

121,  131;  Haiti,    279,   294;  Jamaica,   201; 

Porto  Rico,  153, 179 ;  West  Indies.  389 
Yorktown,  surrender  at,  360 
Yucatan,  4,  5,  9, 11, 15,  35 ;  water-supply,  299 
Yucatan  Channel,  the,  9,  15-17,  35,  38 
Yumuri,  the  river  and  valley  of  the,  45-47, 

120-122,  132 
Yuna,  Rio,  241,  246,  248,  262 
Yunque  Mountain,  147 

Zanjon,  surrender  of,  99 

Zapata,  the,  44,  48 

"  Zombi,"  in  Martinique,  395 


■JhL,j 


CPM, 


489  5 


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